Method for generating training data for use in monitoring the blood pressure of a person that utilizes a pulse wave signal generated from radio frequency scanning

ABSTRACT

Embodiments of the present technology may include a method for generating training data for use in monitoring a health parameter of a person, the method including receiving a pulse wave signal that is generated from radio frequency scanning data that corresponds to radio waves that have reflected from below the skin surface of a person. In some embodiments, the radio frequency scanning data is collected through a two-dimensional array of receive antennas over a range of radio frequencies. Embodiments may also include extracting features from at least one of the pulse wave signal and a mathematical model generated in response to the pulse wave signal. Embodiments may also include labeling the extracted features with a corresponding blood pressure to generate training data.

BACKGROUND

Diabetes is a medical disorder in which a person's blood glucose level,also known as blood sugar level, is elevated over an extended period oftime. If left untreated, diabetes can lead to severe medicalcomplications such as cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, stroke,foot ulcers, and eye damage. It has been estimated that the total costof diabetes in the U.S. in 2017 was $327 billion, American DiabetesAssociation, “Economic Costs of Diabetes in the U.S. in 2017,” publishedonline on Mar. 22, 2018.

Diabetes is typically caused by either the pancreas not producing enoughinsulin, referred to as “Type 1” diabetes, or because the cells of theperson do not properly respond to insulin that is produced, referred toas “Type 2” diabetes. Managing diabetes may involve monitoring aperson's blood glucose level and administering insulin when the person'sblood glucose level is too high to bring the blood glucose level down toa desired level. A person may need to measure their blood glucose levelup to ten times a day depending on many factors, including the severityof the diabetes and the person's medical history. Billions of dollarsare spent each year on equipment and supplies used to monitor bloodglucose levels. Additionally, it may be desirable to monitor otherhealth parameters such as heart rate and/or blood pressure in additionto, or instead of, blood glucose levels.

SUMMARY

Embodiments of the present technology may include a method forgenerating training data for use in monitoring a health parameter of aperson, the method including receiving a pulse wave signal that isgenerated from radio frequency scanning data that corresponds to radiowaves that have reflected from below the skin surface of a person. Insome embodiments, the radio frequency scanning data is collected througha two-dimensional array of receive antennas over a range of radiofrequencies. Embodiments may also include extracting features from atleast one of the pulse wave signal and a mathematical model generated inresponse to the pulse wave signal. Embodiments may also include labelingthe extracted features with a corresponding blood pressure to generatetraining data.

Embodiments of the present technology may also include the methodfurther including training a model using the training data to produce atrained model. In some embodiments, the trained model correlates theextracted features to values that are indicative of a blood pressure ofa person.

In some embodiments, the radio frequency scanning data is generated bytransmitting radio waves below the skin surface of the person andreceiving radio waves on the two-dimensional array of receive antennas,the received radio waves including a reflected portion of thetransmitted radio waves that is reflected from a blood vessel of theperson. In some embodiments, radio waves are transmitted from transmitantennas that have at least two different polarization orientations. Insome embodiments, radio waves are received on antennas of thetwo-dimensional array of receive antennas that have polarizationorientations that correspond to the transmit antennas.

In some embodiments, the radio frequency scanning data is collectedacross the range of radio frequencies at 50-300 scans per second. Insome embodiments, the pulse wave signal is generated by coherentlycombining the radio frequency scanning data over the range offrequencies for each receive antenna in the two-dimensional array ofreceive antennas. Embodiments may also include extracting features froma digital dataset of blood pressure waveforms and blood pressure data.Embodiments may also include labeling the extracted features with acorresponding blood pressure to generate supplemental training data.Embodiments may also include training a model using the training dataand the supplemental training data to produce a trained model.Embodiments may also include weighting the training data generated fromthe digital data set different from the training data generated from thestepped frequency scanning.

Embodiments of the present technology may also include a method forgenerating training data for use in monitoring a health parameter of aperson, the method including receiving a pulse wave signal that isgenerated from stepped frequency scanning data that corresponds to radiowaves that have reflected from below the skin surface of a person. Insome embodiments, the stepped frequency scanning data is collectedthrough a two-dimensional array of receive antennas over a range ofstepped frequencies. Embodiments may also include extracting featuresfrom at least one of the pulse wave signal and a mathematical modelgenerated in response to the pulse wave signal. Embodiments may alsoinclude labeling the extracted features with a corresponding bloodpressure to generate training data.

Embodiments of the present technology may also include a method forgenerating training data for use in monitoring a health parameter of aperson, the method including transmitting radio waves below the skinsurface of a person and across a range of radio frequencies. Embodimentsmay also include receiving radio waves on a two-dimensional array ofreceive antennas, the received radio waves including a reflected portionof the transmitted radio waves across the range of radio frequencies.Embodiments may also include generating digital data that corresponds tothe received radio waves. Embodiments may also include coherentlycombining the digital data across the receive antennas of thetwo-dimensional array of receive antennas and across the range of radiofrequencies to produce a pulse wave signal. Embodiments may also includeextracting features from at least one of the pulse wave signal and amathematical model generated in response to the pulse wave signal.Embodiments may also include labeling the extracted features with avalue corresponding to a health parameter to generate training data.

Embodiments may also include training a model using the training data toproduce a trained model. In some embodiments, the trained modelcorrelates the extracted features to values that are indicative of thehealth parameter of a person. In some embodiments, the digital dataincludes amplitude data and phase data. In some embodiments, coherentlycombining the digital data may include adjusting weights correspondingto at least one of the amplitude data and the phase data on aper-antenna and on a per-frequency basis.

In some embodiments, radio waves are transmitted from transmit antennasthat have at least two different polarization orientations. In someembodiments, radio waves are received on antennas of the two-dimensionalarray of receive antennas that have polarization orientations thatcorrespond to the transmit antennas. In some embodiments, the pulse wavesignal is an arterial pulse wave signal. In some embodiments, theextracted feature is a function of a dicrotic notch of the pulse wavesignal.

In some embodiments, the extracted feature is a function of diastolicpeak of the pulse wave signal. In some embodiments, the health parameteris blood pressure. In some embodiments, the health parameter is bloodglucose level. Embodiments may also include extracting features from adigital dataset of blood pressure waveforms and blood pressure data.Embodiments may also include labeling the extracted features with acorresponding blood pressure to generate supplemental training data.Embodiments may also include training a model using the training dataand the supplemental training data to produce a trained model.Embodiments may also include weighting the training data generated fromthe digital data set different from the training data generated from theradio frequency scanning.

Other aspects in accordance with the invention will become apparent fromthe following detailed description, taken in conjunction with theaccompanying drawings, illustrated by way of example of the principlesof the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B are perspective views of a smartwatch.

FIG. 2A depicts a posterior view of a right hand with the typicalapproximate location of the cephalic vein and the basilic veinoverlaid/superimposed.

FIG. 2B depicts the location of a cross-section of the wrist from FIG.2A.

FIG. 2C depicts the cross-section of the wrist from the approximatelocation shown in FIG. 2B (as viewed in the direction from the elbow tothe hand).

FIG. 3 is a perspective view of human skin that includes a skin surface,hairs, and the epidermis and dermis layers of the skin.

FIG. 4A depicts a simplified version of the cross-section of FIG. 2C,which shows the skin, the radius and ulna bones, and the basilic vein.

FIG. 4B depicts the wrist cross-section of FIG. 4A in a case where asmartwatch is attached to the wrist.

FIG. 4C illustrates, in two dimensions, an example of the penetrationdepth (which corresponds to a 3D illumination space) of radio wavestransmitted from the sensor system of the smartwatch at a frequency of60 GHz and a transmission power of 15 dBm.

FIG. 4D illustrates, in two dimensions, an example of the penetrationdepth (which corresponds to a 3D illumination space) of radio wavestransmitted from the sensor system of the smartwatch at a frequency of122-126 GHz and transmit power of 15 dBm.

FIG. 5 depicts a functional block diagram of an embodiment of a sensorsystem that utilizes millimeter range radio waves to monitor a healthparameter such as the blood glucose level in a person.

FIG. 6 depicts an expanded view of an embodiment of portions of thesensor system of FIG. 5, including elements of the RF front-end.

FIG. 7 depicts an embodiment of the IF/BB component shown in FIG. 6.

FIG. 8A depicts an example embodiment of a plan view of an IC devicethat includes two TX antennas and four antennas 846 as well as some ofthe components from the RF front-end and the digital baseband (notshown) as described above with regard to FIGS. 5-7.

FIG. 8B depicts an embodiment of a microstrip patch antenna that can beused for the TX and/or RX antennas of the IC device of FIG. 8A.

FIG. 8C depicts an example of the physical layout of circuit componentson a semiconductor substrate, such as the semiconductor substrate (die)depicted in FIG. 8A.

FIG. 8D depicts a packaged IC device similar to the packaged IC deviceshown in FIG. 8A superimposed over the semiconductor substrate shown inFIG. 8C.

FIG. 9 depicts an IC device similar to that of FIG. 8A overlaid on thehand/wrist that is described above with reference to FIG. 2A-2C.

FIG. 10 depicts an IC device similar to that of FIG. 8A overlaid on theback of the smartwatch.

FIG. 11 depicts a side view of a sensor system in a case in which thetwo TX antennas are configured parallel to veins such as the basilic andcephalic veins of a person wearing the smartwatch.

FIG. 12 depicts the same side view as shown in FIG. 11 in a case inwhich the two TX antennas are configured transverse to veins such as thebasilic and cephalic veins of a person wearing the smartwatch.

FIGS. 13A-13C depict frequency versus time graphs of impulse, chirp, andstepped frequency techniques for transmitting electromagnetic energy ina radar system.

FIG. 14 depicts a burst of electromagnetic energy using steppedfrequency transmission.

FIG. 15A depicts a graph of the transmission bandwidth, B, oftransmitted electromagnetic energy in the frequency range of 122-126GHz.

FIG. 15B depicts a graph of stepped frequency pulses that have arepetition interval, T, and a step size, Δf, of 62.5 MHz.

FIG. 16A depicts a frequency versus time graph of transmission pulses,with transmit (TX) interval and receive (RX) intervals identifiedrelative to the pulses.

FIG. 16B depicts an amplitude versus time graph of the transmissionwaveforms that corresponds to FIG. 16A.

FIG. 17 illustrates operations related to transmitting, receiving, andprocessing phases of the sensor system operation.

FIG. 18 depicts an expanded view of the anatomy of a wrist, similar tothat described above with reference to FIGS. 2A-4D, relative to RXantennas of a sensor system that is integrated into a wearable devicesuch as a smartwatch.

FIG. 19 illustrates an IC device similar to the IC device shown in FIG.8A relative to a vein and blood flowing through the vein.

FIG. 20 is an embodiment of a DSP that includes a Doppler effectcomponent, a beamforming component, and a ranging component.

FIG. 21 is a process flow diagram of a method for monitoring a healthparameter of a person.

FIG. 22A depicts a side view of the area around a person's ear with thetypical approximate locations of veins and arteries, including thesuperficial temporal artery, the superficial temporal vein, the anteriorauricular artery and vein, the posterior auricular artery, the occipitalartery, the external carotid artery, and the external jugular vein.

FIG. 22B depicts an embodiment of system in which at least elements ofan RF front-end are located separate from a housing.

FIG. 22C illustrates how a device, such as the device depicted in FIG.22B, may be worn near the ear of a person similar to how a conventionalhearing aid is worn.

FIG. 23 is a table of parameters related to stepped frequency scanningin a system such as the above-described system.

FIG. 24 is a table of parameters similar to the table of FIG. 23 inwhich examples are associated with each parameter for a given step in astepped frequency scanning operation in order to give some context tothe table.

FIG. 25 depicts an embodiment of the IC device from FIG. 8A in which theantenna polarization orientation is illustrated by the orientation ofthe transmit and receive antennas.

FIG. 26 is a table of raw data that is generated during steppedfrequency scanning.

FIG. 27 illustrates a system and process for machine learning that canbe used to identify and train a model that reflects correlations betweenraw data, derived data, and control data.

FIG. 28 is an example of a process flow diagram of a method forimplementing machine learning.

FIG. 29 is an example of a table of a raw data record generated duringstepped frequency scanning that is used to generate the training data.

FIGS. 30A-30D are tables of at least portions of raw data records thatare generated during a learning process that spans the time of t1-tn,where n corresponds to the number of time intervals, T, in the steppedfrequency scanning.

FIG. 31 illustrates a system for health parameter monitoring thatutilizes a sensor system similar to or the same as the sensor systemdescribed with reference to FIGS. 5-7.

FIG. 32 is a process flow diagram of a method for monitoring a healthparameter in a person.

FIG. 33 is a process flow diagram of another method for monitoring ahealth parameter in a person.

FIG. 34 is a process flow diagram of a method for training a model foruse in monitoring a health parameter in a person.

FIG. 35 depicts an arterial pulse pressure waveform relative to aheartbeat.

FIGS. 36A and 36B illustrate an RF-based sensor system that includes atransmit (TX) antenna and a two-dimensional array of receive (RX)antennas relative to two instances in time of an arterial pulse wave ofan artery.

FIG. 37 depicts an embodiment of an RF-based sensor system that isconfigured to generate a pulse wave signal that corresponds to a pulsepressure waveform.

FIG. 38 depicts pulse wave signals that correspond to RF energy receivedon each of the four RX antennas of the RF-based sensor system.

FIG. 39 depicts an example of pulse wave signals that correspond to RFenergy received on each of the four RX antennas under actual conditionsin which the signals detected on each antenna are not idealrepresentations of the actual arterial pulse pressure waveform and varyfrom antenna to antenna and over time.

FIG. 40 illustrates that the data generated from each of four RXantennas is combined in a pulse wave signal processor to produce asingle pulse wave signal.

FIG. 41 depicts frames of digital data generated by an RF-based sensorsystem over four RX antennas, over a range of radio frequencies, andover a period of time.

FIG. 42 is a functional block diagram of a pulse wave signal processorthat is configured to coherently combine the diverse set of datadepicted in FIG. 41.

FIG. 43 illustrates the application of weights and the summing of dataover a set of 150 scans.

FIG. 44 graphically illustrates the pulse wave signals corresponding tofour RX antennas being modeled as a trigonometric polynomialmathematical model of the pulse wave signal.

FIG. 45A depicts a pulse wave signal of a person over 60 seconds withthe typical pulse wave signal having a period of 1 second.

FIG. 45B depicts an example graph of the blood glucose level of theperson over the course of a 24-hour period.

FIG. 45C depicts short time segments of pulse wave signals that aregenerated by the RF-based sensor system for the person at approximately2 hours apart in time as shown in FIG. 45B.

FIG. 46 is a functional block diagram of a system that can be used todetermine a blood pressure and a blood glucose level from a pulse wavesignal that is produced by an RF-based sensor system.

FIG. 47 depicts an example of a pulse wave signal that is generated byan RF-based sensor system with particular features identified.

FIG. 48 illustrates various categories of training data that may be usedalone or in some combination by an ML training engine to train a modelfor use by a blood pressure ML engine.

FIG. 49A illustrates a process for generating training data and forusing the training data to train a model for use in blood pressuremonitoring.

FIG. 49B illustrates a process for generating training data and forusing the training data to train a model for use in blood glucosemonitoring.

FIG. 50A depicts an example of a health parameter monitoring system thatutilizes machine learning techniques to generate values that areindicative of a health parameter.

FIG. 50B depicts an example of a health parameter monitoring system asshown in FIG. 50A in which the RF front-end, the pulse wave signalprocessor, and the feature extractor are integrated into a firstcomponent, and the health parameter determination engine is integratedinto a second component.

FIG. 50C depicts another example of a health parameter monitoring systemas shown in FIG. 50A in which the RF front-end and the pulse wave signalprocessor are integrated into a first component, and the featureextractor and the health parameter determination engine are integratedinto a second component.

FIG. 51 illustrates a pulse wave signal, which is generated by theRF-based sensor system, relative to changes in a parameter of the radiofrequency scanning that are made in response to the generated pulse wavesignal.

FIG. 52 illustrates a pulse wave signal, which is generated by theRF-based sensor system, relative to changes in the step size that aremade upon detection of every other pulse wave in the pulse wave signal.

FIG. 53 illustrates a pulse wave signal, which is generated by theRF-based sensor system, relative to a change in the step size that ismade in response to detecting the systolic peak of a pulse wave signal.

FIG. 54 illustrates a pulse wave signal, which is generated by theRF-based sensor system, relative to a change in the scanning range thatis made in response to the generated pulse wave signal.

FIG. 55 illustrates a single pulse wave of a pulse wave signal generatedby the RF-based sensor system in which the step size of steppedfrequency scanning is changed in response to detection of features ofthe pulse wave signal.

FIG. 56 depicts another example of changes to a parameter of the radiofrequency scanning in which the step size is changed multiple timeswithin a single pulse wave of the generated pulse wave signal.

Throughout the description, similar reference numbers may be used toidentify similar elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

It will be readily understood that the components of the embodiments asgenerally described herein and illustrated in the appended figures couldbe arranged and designed in a wide variety of different configurations.Thus, the following more detailed description of various embodiments, asrepresented in the figures, is not intended to limit the scope of thepresent disclosure, but is merely representative of various embodiments.While the various aspects of the embodiments are presented in drawings,the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale unless specificallyindicated.

The present invention may be embodied in other specific forms withoutdeparting from its spirit or essential characteristics. The describedembodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrativeand not restrictive. The scope of the invention is, therefore, indicatedby the appended claims rather than by this detailed description. Allchanges which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of theclaims are to be embraced within their scope.

Reference throughout this specification to features, advantages, orsimilar language does not imply that all of the features and advantagesthat may be realized with the present invention should be or are in anysingle embodiment of the invention. Rather, language referring to thefeatures and advantages is understood to mean that a specific feature,advantage, or characteristic described in connection with an embodimentis included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus,discussions of the features and advantages, and similar language,throughout this specification may, but do not necessarily, refer to thesame embodiment.

Furthermore, the described features, advantages, and characteristics ofthe invention may be combined in any suitable manner in one or moreembodiments. One skilled in the relevant art will recognize, in light ofthe description herein, that the invention can be practiced without oneor more of the specific features or advantages of a particularembodiment. In other instances, additional features and advantages maybe recognized in certain embodiments that may not be present in allembodiments of the invention.

Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment”, “anembodiment”, or similar language means that a particular feature,structure, or characteristic described in connection with the indicatedembodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the presentinvention. Thus, the phrases “in one embodiment”, “in an embodiment”,and similar language throughout this specification may, but do notnecessarily, all refer to the same embodiment.

Traditional blood glucose level monitoring is accomplished by pricking afinger to draw blood and measuring the blood glucose level with a bloodglucose meter, or “glucometer.” Continuous glucose monitoring can beaccomplished by applying a continuous glucose monitor (CGM) to an areaon the body such as the torso. The continuous glucose monitor utilizes aneedle that is continuously embedded through the skin to obtain accessto blood. Although blood glucose meters and continuous glucose monitorswork well to monitor blood glucose levels, both techniques are invasivein nature in that they require physical penetration of the skin by asharp object.

Various non-invasive techniques for monitoring blood glucose levels havebeen explored. Example techniques for monitoring blood glucose levelsinclude techniques based on infrared (IR) spectroscopy, near infrared(NIR) spectroscopy, mid infrared (MIR) spectroscopy, photoacousticspectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, opticalcoherence tomography (OCT), and microwave sensing, Ruochong Zhang etal., “Noninvasive Electromagnetic Wave Sensing of Glucose,” Oct. 1,2018.

In the category of microwave sensing, millimeter range radio waves havebeen identified as useful for monitoring blood glucose levels. Anexample of using millimeter range radio waves to monitor blood glucoselevels is described by Peter H. Siegel et al., “Millimeter-WaveNon-Invasive Monitoring of Glucose in Anesthetized Rats,” 2014International Conference on Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves,Tucson, Ariz., Sep. 14-19, 2014. Here, Siegel et al. describes using theKa band (27-40 GHz) to measure blood glucose levels through the ear of alab rat.

Another example of using millimeter range radio waves to monitor bloodglucose levels is described by George Shaker et al., “Non-InvasiveMonitoring of Glucose Level Changes Utilizing a mm-Wave Radar System,”International Journal of Mobile Human Computer Interaction, Volume 10,Issue 3, July-September 2018. Here, Shaker et al. utilizes a millimeterrange sensing system referred to as “Soli,” (see Jaime Lien et. al.,“Soli: Ubiquitous Gesture Sensing with Millimeter Wave Radar,” ACMTrans. Graph. 35, 4 Article 142, July 2016) to monitor blood glucoselevels. Shaker et al. utilizes radio waves in the 57-64 GHz frequencyrange to monitor blood glucose levels. Although the Soli sensor systemincludes transmit (TX) and receive (RX) antennas on the same integratedcircuit (IC) device (i.e., the same “chip”) and thus in the same plane,Shaker et al. concludes that for blood glucose monitoring, a radarsensing system configuration would ideally have its antennas placed onopposite sides of the sample under test to be able to effectivelymonitor blood glucose levels. When the transmit (TX) and receive (RX)antennas were on the same side of the sample under test, Shaker et al.was not able to find any discernible trend in the magnitude or phase ofthe sensor signals.

Another example of using millimeter range radio waves to monitor bloodglucose levels is described by Shimul Saha et al., “A Glucose SensingSystem Based on Transmission Measurements at Millimeter Waves usingMicro strip Patch Antennas,” Scientific Reports, published online Jul.31, 2017. Here, Saha et al. notes that millimeter wave spectroscopy inreflection mode has been used for non-invasive glucose sensing throughhuman skin, but concludes that signals from reflection mode detectionyield information that is insufficient for tracking the relevant changesin blood glucose levels. Saha et al. investigates radio waves in therange of 20-100 GHz for monitoring blood glucose levels and concludesthat an optimal sensing frequency is in the range of 40-80 GHz.

Although blood glucose level monitoring using millimeter range radiowaves has been shown to be technically feasible, implementation ofpractical monitoring methods and systems has yet to be realized. Forexample, a practical realization of a monitoring system may include amonitoring system that can be integrated into a wearable device, such asa smartwatch.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, methods and systemsfor monitoring the blood glucose level of a person using millimeterrange radio waves involve transmitting millimeter range radio wavesbelow the skin surface, receiving a reflected portion of the radio waveson multiple receive antennas, isolating a signal from a particularlocation in response to the received radio waves, and outputting asignal that corresponds to a blood glucose level in the person inresponse to the isolated signals. In an embodiment, beamforming is usedin the receive process to isolate radio waves that are reflected from aspecific location (e.g., onto a specific blood vessel) to provide ahigh-quality signal that corresponds to blood glucose levels in thespecific blood vessel. In another embodiment, Doppler effect processingcan be used to isolate radio waves that are reflected from a specificlocation (e.g., reflected from a specific blood vessel) to provide ahigh-quality signal that corresponds to blood glucose levels in thespecific blood vessel. Analog and/or digital signal processingtechniques can be used to implement beamforming and/or Doppler effectprocessing and digital signal processing of the received signals can beused to dynamically adjust (or “focus”) a received beam onto the desiredlocation. In still another embodiment, beamforming and Doppler effectprocessing can be used together to isolate radio waves that arereflected from a specific location (e.g., reflected from a specificblood vessel) to provide a high-quality signal that corresponds to bloodglucose levels in the specific blood vessel.

As described above, Siegal et al., Shaker et al., and Saha et al.,utilize radio waves in the range of about 27-80 GHz, commonly around 60GHz, to monitor blood glucose levels. Saha et al. discloses that afrequency of around 60 GHz is desirable for glucose detection usingelectromagnetic transmission data and notes that for increasingly higherfrequencies, the losses are prohibitively high for the signal-to-noiseratio (SNR) to exceed the noise level of a sensing instrument such as aVector Network Analyzer (VNA).

In contrast to conventional techniques, it has been discovered thatusing a higher frequency range, e.g., 122-126 GHz, to monitor bloodglucose levels can provide certain benefits that heretofore have notbeen recognized. For example, transmitting millimeter range radio wavesin the frequency range of 122-126 GHz results in a shallower penetrationdepth within a human body than radio waves in the frequency range around60 GHz for a similar transmission power. A shallower penetration depthcan reduce undesirable reflections (e.g., reflections off of bone anddense tissue such as tendons, ligaments, and muscle), which can reducethe signal processing burden and improve the quality of the desiredsignal that is generated from the location of a blood vessel.

Additionally, transmitting millimeter range radio waves in the frequencyrange of 122-126 GHz enables higher resolution sensing than radio wavesat around 60 GHz due to the shorter wavelengths, e.g., 2.46-2.38 mm for122-126 GHz radio waves versus 5 mm for 60 GHz radio waves. Higherresolution sensing allows a receive beam to be focused more precisely(e.g., through beamforming and/or Doppler effect processing) onto aparticular blood vessel, such as the basilic vein on the posterior ofthe wrist, which can also improve the quality of the desired signal.

Additionally, utilizing millimeter range radio waves in the frequencyrange of 122-126 GHz to monitor blood glucose levels enables the size ofthe corresponding transmit and receive antennas to be reduced incomparison to techniques that utilize radio waves in the frequency rangeof 20-80 GHz. For example, the size of antennas can be reduced by afactor of approximately two by using radio waves in the 122-126 GHzfrequency range instead of radio waves in the 60 GHz frequency range,which can enable a smaller form factor for the antennas and for theoverall sensor system. Additionally, the frequency range of 122-126 GHzis an unlicensed band of the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM)radio bands as defined by the International Telecommunication Union(ITU) Radio Regulations. Thus, methods and systems for monitoring bloodglucose levels that are implemented using a frequency range of 122-126GHz do not require a license.

FIGS. 1A and 1B are perspective views of a smartwatch 100, which is adevice that provides various computing functionality beyond simplygiving the time. Smartwatches are well known in the field. Thesmartwatch includes a case 102 (also referred to as a “housing”) and astrap 104 (e.g., an attachment device) and the strap is typicallyattached to the case by lugs (not shown). FIG. 1A is a top perspectiveview of the smartwatch that shows a front face 106 of the case and acrown 108 and FIG. 1B is a back perspective view of the smartwatch thatshows a back plate of the case. FIG. 1B also includes a dashed lineblock 110 that represents a sensor system, such as a sensor system forhealth monitoring. The sensor system may be partially or fully embeddedwithin the case. In some embodiments, the sensor system may include asensor integrated circuit (IC) device or IC devices with transmit and/orreceive antennas integrated therewith. In some embodiments, the backplate of the case may have openings that allow radio waves to pass moreeasily to and from smartwatch. In some embodiments, the back plate ofthe case may have areas of differing materials that create channelsthrough which radio waves can pass more easily. For example, in anembodiment, the back plate of the case may be made primarily of metalwith openings in the metal at locations that correspond to sensorantennas that are filled with a material (e.g., plastic or glass) thatallows radio waves to pass to and from the smartwatch more easily thanthrough the metal case.

Although a smartwatch is described as one device in which a millimeterrange radio wave sensing system can be included, a millimeter rangeradio wave sensing system can be included in other sensing devices,including various types of wearable devices and/or devices that are notwearable but that are brought close to, or in contact with, the skin ofa person only when health monitoring is desired. For example, amillimeter range radio wave sensing system can be incorporated into asmartphone. In an embodiment, a millimeter range radio wave sensingsystem can be included in a health and fitness tracking device that isworn on the wrist and tracks, among other things, a person's movements.In another embodiment, a millimeter range radio wave sensing system canbe incorporated into a device such as dongle or cover (e.g., aprotective cover that is placed over a smartphone for protection) thatis paired (e.g., via a local data connection such as USB or BLUETOOTH)with a device such as a smartphone or smartwatch to implement healthmonitoring. For example, a dongle may include many of the componentsdescribed below with reference to FIG. 6, while the paired device (e.g.,the smartphone or smartwatch) includes a digital signal processingcapability (e.g., through a Digital Signal Processor (DSP)) andinstruction processing capability (e.g., through a Central ProcessingUnit (CPU)). In another example, a millimeter range sensing system maybe incorporated into a device that is attached to the ear. In anembodiment, the sensing system could be attached to the lobe of the earor have an attachment element that wraps around the ear or wraps arounda portion of the ear.

Wearable devices such as smartwatches and health and fitness trackersare often worn on the wrist similar to a traditional wristwatch. Inorder to monitor blood glucose levels using millimeter range radiowaves, it has been discovered that the anatomy of the wrist is animportant consideration. FIG. 2A depicts a posterior view of a righthand 212 with the typical approximate location of the cephalic vein 214and the basilic vein 216 overlaid/superimposed. FIG. 2B depicts thelocation of a cross-section of the wrist 218 from FIG. 2A and FIG. 2Cdepicts the cross-section of the wrist 218 from the approximate locationshown in FIG. 2B (as viewed in the direction from the elbow to thehand). In FIG. 2C, the cross-section is oriented on the page such thatthe posterior portion of the wrist is on the top and the anteriorportion of the wrist is on the bottom. The depth dimension of a wrist isidentified on the left side and typically ranges from 40-60 mm (based ona wrist circumference in the range of 140-190 mm). Anatomic features ofthe wrist shown in FIG. 2C include the abductor pollicis longus (APL),the extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB), the extensor carpi radialislongus (ECRL), the extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU), the extensor indicisproprius (EIP), the extensor pollicis brevis (EPB), the extensorpollicis longus (EPL), the flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU), the flexordigitorum superficialis (FDS), the flexor pollicis longus (FPL), thebasilic vein 216, the radius, the ulna, the radial artery, the mediannerve, the ulnar artery, and the ulnar nerve. FIG. 2C also depicts theapproximate location of the basilic vein in subcutaneous tissue 220below the skin 222. In some embodiments and as is disclosed below, thelocation of a blood vessel such as the basilic vein is of particularinterest to monitoring blood glucose levels using millimeter range radiowaves.

FIG. 3 is a perspective view of human skin 322 that includes a skinsurface 324, hairs 326, and the epidermis 328 and dermis 330 layers ofthe skin. The skin is located on top of subcutaneous tissue 320. In anexample, the thickness of human skin in the wrist area is around 1-4 mmand the thickness of the subcutaneous tissue may vary from 1-34 mm,although these thicknesses may vary based on many factors. As shown inFIG. 3, very small blood vessels 332 (e.g., capillaries having adiameter in the range of approximately 5-10 microns) are located aroundthe interface between the dermis and the subcutaneous tissue whileveins, such as the cephalic and basilic veins, are located in thesubcutaneous tissue just below the skin. For example, the cephalic andbasilic veins may have a diameter in the range of 1-4 mm and may beapproximately 2-10 mm below the surface of the skin, although thesediameters and depths may vary based on many factors. FIG. 3 depicts anexample location of the basilic vein 316 in the area of the wrist.

FIG. 4A depicts a simplified version of the cross-section of FIG. 2C,which shows the skin 422, the radius and ulna bones 434 and 436, and thebasilic vein 416. FIG. 4B depicts the wrist cross-section of FIG. 4A ina case where a smartwatch 400, such as the smartwatch shown in FIGS. 1Aand 1B, is attached to the wrist. FIG. 4B illustrates an example of thelocation of the smartwatch relative to the wrist and in particularrelative to the basilic vein of the wrist. In the example of FIG. 4B,dashed line block 410 represents the approximate location of a sensorsystem and corresponds to the dashed line block 110 shown in FIG. 1B.The location of the smartwatch relative to the anatomy of the wrist,including the bones and a vein such as the basilic vein, is an importantconsideration in implementing blood glucose monitoring using millimeterrange radio waves.

The magnitude of the reflected and received radio waves is a function ofthe power of the transmitted radio waves. With regard to the anatomy ofthe human body, it has been realized that radio waves transmitted ataround 60 GHz at a particular transmission power level (e.g., 15 dBm)penetrate deeper (and thus illuminate a larger 3D space) into the humanbody than radio waves transmitted at 122-126 GHz at the sametransmission power level (e.g., 15 dBm). FIG. 4C illustrates, in twodimensions, an example of the penetration depth (which corresponds to a3D illumination space) of radio waves 438 transmitted from the sensorsystem of the smartwatch at a frequency of 60 GHz and a transmissionpower of 15 dBm. FIG. 4D illustrates, in two dimensions, an example ofthe penetration depth (which corresponds to a 3D illumination space) ofradio waves 440 transmitted from the sensor system of the smartwatch ata frequency of 122-126 GHz and transmit power of 15 dBm, which is thesame transmission power as used in the example of FIG. 4C. Asillustrated by FIGS. 4C and 4D, for equivalent transmission powers(e.g., 15 dBm), radio waves 438 transmitted at 60 GHz penetrate deeperinto the wrist (and thus have a corresponding larger illumination space)than radio waves 440 that are transmitted at 122-126 GHz. The deeperpenetration depth of the 60 GHz radio waves results in more radio wavesbeing reflected from anatomical features within the wrist. For example,a large quantity of radio waves will be reflected from the radius andulna bones 434 and 436 in the wrist as well as from dense tissue such astendons and ligaments that are located between the skin and the bones atthe posterior of the wrist, see FIG. 2C, which shows tendons andligaments that are located between the skin and the bones at theposterior of the wrist. Likewise the shallower penetration of the122-126 GHz radio waves results in fewer radio waves being reflectedfrom undesired anatomical features within the wrist (e.g., anatomicalfeatures other than the targeted blood vessel or vein). For example, amuch smaller or negligible magnitude of radio waves will be reflectedfrom the radius and ulna bones in the wrist as well as from dense tissuesuch as tendons and ligaments that are located between the skin and thebones at the posterior of the wrist.

It has been realized that the penetration depth (and corresponding 3Dillumination space), is an important factor in the complexity of thesignal processing that is performed to obtain an identifiable signalthat corresponds to the blood glucose level in the wrist (e.g., in thebasilic vein of the wrist). In order to accurately measure the bloodglucose level in a vein such as the basilic vein, it is desirable toisolate reflections from the area of the vein from all of the otherreflections that are detected (e.g., from reflections from the radiusand ulna bones in the wrist as well as from dense tissue such as tendonsand ligaments that are located between the skin and the bones at theposterior of the wrist). In an embodiment, radio waves are transmittedat an initial power such that the power of the radio waves hasdiminished by approximately one-half (e.g., ±10%) at a depth of 6 mmbelow the skin surface. Reflections can be isolated using varioustechniques including signal processing techniques that are used forbeamforming, Doppler effect, and/or leakage mitigation. The largerquantity of reflections in the 60 GHz case will likely need moreintensive signal processing to remove signals that correspond tounwanted reflections in order to obtain a signal of sufficient qualityto monitor a blood parameter such as the blood glucose level in aperson.

FIG. 5 depicts a functional block diagram of an embodiment of a sensorsystem 510 that utilizes millimeter range radio waves to monitor ahealth parameter such as the blood glucose level in a person. The sensorsystem includes transmit (TX) antennas 544, receive (RX) antennas 546,an RF front-end 548, a digital baseband system 550, and a CPU 552. Thecomponents of the sensor system may be integrated together in variousways. For example, some combination of components may be fabricated onthe same semiconductor substrate and/or included in the same packaged ICdevice or a combination of packaged IC devices. As described above, inan embodiment, the sensor system is designed to transmit and receiveradio waves in the range of 122-126 GHz.

In the embodiment of FIG. 5, the sensor system 510 includes two TXantennas 544 and four RX antennas 546. Although two TX and four RXantennas are used, there could be another number of antennas, e.g., oneor more TX antennas and two or more RX antennas. In an embodiment, theantennas are configured to transmit and receive millimeter range radiowaves. For example, the antennas are configured to transmit and receiveradio waves in the 122-126 GHz frequency range, e.g., wavelengths in therange of 2.46-2.38 mm.

In the embodiment of FIG. 5, the RF front-end 548 includes a transmit(TX) component 554, a receive (RX) component 556, a frequencysynthesizer 558, and an analogue processing component 560. The transmitcomponent may include elements such as power amplifiers and mixers. Thereceive component may include elements such as low noise amplifiers(LNAs), variable gain amplifiers (VGAs), and mixers. The frequencysynthesizer includes elements to generate electrical signals atfrequencies that are used by the transmit and receive components. In anembodiment the frequency synthesizer may include elements such as acrystal oscillator, a phase-locked loop (PLL), a frequency doubler,and/or a combination thereof. The analogue processing component mayinclude elements such as mixers and filters, e.g., low pass filters(LPFs). In an embodiment, components of the RF front-end are implementedin hardware as electronic circuits that are fabricated on the samesemiconductor substrate.

The digital baseband system 550 includes an analog-to-digital converter(ADC) 562, a digital signal processor (DSP) 564, and a microcontrollerunit (MCU) 566. Although the digital baseband system is shown asincluding certain elements, the digital baseband system may include someother configuration, including some other combination of elements. Thedigital baseband system is connected to the CPU 552 via a bus.

FIG. 6 depicts an expanded view of an embodiment of portions of thesensor system 510 of FIG. 5, including elements of the RF front-end. Inthe embodiment of FIG. 6, the elements include a crystal oscillator 670,a phase locked loop (PLL) 672, a bandpass filter (BPF) 674, a mixer 676,power amplifiers (PAs) 678, TX antennas 644, a frequency synthesizer680, a frequency doubler 682, a frequency divider 684, a mixer 686, anRX antenna 646, a low noise amplifier (LNA) 688, a mixer 690, a mixer692, and an Intermediate Frequency/Baseband (IF/BB) component 694. Asillustrated in FIG. 6, the group of receive components identified withinand dashed box 696 is repeated four times, e.g., once for each of fourdistinct RX antennas.

Operation of the system shown in FIG. 6 is described with reference to atransmit operation and with reference to a receive operation. Thedescription of a transmit operation generally corresponds to aleft-to-right progression in FIG. 6 and description of a receiveoperation generally corresponds to a right-to-left progression in FIG.6. With regard to the transmit operation, the crystal oscillator 670generates an analog signal at a frequency of 10 MHz. The 10 MHz signalis provided to the PLL 672, to the frequency synthesizer 680, and to thefrequency divider 684. The PLL uses the 10 MHz signal to generate ananalog signal that is in the 2-6 GHz frequency range. The 2-6 GHz signalis provided to the BPF 674, which filters the input signal and passes asignal in the 2-6 GHz range to the mixer 676. The 2-6 GHz signal is alsoprovided to the mixer 686.

Dropping down in FIG. 6, the 10 MHz signal is used by the frequencysynthesizer 680 to produce a 15 GHz signal. The 15 GHz signal is used bythe frequency doubler 682 to generate a signal at 120 GHz. In anembodiment, the frequency doubler includes a series of three frequencydoublers that each double the frequency, e.g., from 15 GHz to 30 GHz,and then from 30 GHz to 60 GHz, and then from 60 GHz to 120 GHz. The 120GHz signal and the 2-6 GHz signal are provided to the mixer 676, whichmixes the two signals to generate a signal at 122-126 GHz depending onthe frequency of the 2-6 GHz signal. The 122-126 GHz signal output fromthe mixer 676 is provided to the power amplifiers 678, and RF signals inthe 122-126 GHz range are output from the TX antennas 644. In anembodiment, the 122-126 GHz signals are output at 15 dBm (decibels (dB)with reference to 1 milliwatt (mW)). In an embodiment and as describedbelow, the PLL is controlled to generate discrete frequency pulsesbetween 2-6 GHz that are used for stepped frequency transmission.

The 10 MHz signal from the crystal oscillator 670 is also provided tothe frequency divider 684, which divides the frequency down, e.g., from10 MHz to 2.5 MHz via, for example, two divide by two operations, andprovides an output signal at 2.5 MHz to the mixer 686. The mixer 686also receives the 2-6 GHz signal from the BPF 674 and provides a signalat 2-6 GHz+2.5 MHz to the mixer 692 for receive signal processing.

With reference to a receive operation, electromagnetic (EM) energy isreceived at the RX antenna 646 and converted to electrical signals,e.g., voltage and current. For example, electromagnetic energy in the122-126 GHz frequency band is converted to an electrical signal thatcorresponds in frequency (e.g., GHz), magnitude (e.g., power in dBm),and phase to the electromagnetic energy that is received at the RXantenna. The electrical signal is provided to the LNA 688. In anembodiment, the LNA amplifies signals in the 122-126 GHz frequency rangeand outputs an amplified 122-126 GHz signal. The amplified 122-126 GHzsignal is provided to the mixer 690, which mixes the 120 GHz signal fromthe frequency doubler 682 with the received 122-126 GHz signal togenerate a 2-6 GHz signal that corresponds to the electromagnetic energythat was received at the RX antenna. The 2-6 GHz signal is then mixedwith the 2-6 GHz+2.5 MHz signal at mixer 692 to generate a 2.5 MHzsignal that corresponds to the electromagnetic energy that was receivedat the RX antenna. For example, when a 122 GHz signal is beingtransmitted from the TX antennas and received at the RX antenna, themixer 692 receives a 2 GHz signal that corresponds to theelectromagnetic energy that was received at the antenna and a 2 GHz+2.5MHz signal from the mixer 686. The mixer 692 mixes the 2 GHz signal thatcorresponds to the electromagnetic energy that was received at the RXantenna with the 2 GHz+2.5 MHz signal from the mixer 686 to generate a2.5 MHz signal that corresponds to the electromagnetic energy that wasreceived at the RX antenna. The 2.5 MHz signal that corresponds to theelectromagnetic energy that was received at the RX antenna is providedto the IF/BB component 694 for analog-to-digital conversion. Theabove-described receive process can be implemented in parallel on eachof the four receive paths 696. As is described below, the systemdescribed with reference to FIG. 6 can be used to generate variousdiscrete frequencies that can be used to implement, for example, steppedfrequency radar detection. As described above, multiple mixingoperations are performed to implement a sensor system at such a highfrequency, e.g., in the 122-126 GHz range. The multiple mixers andcorresponding mixing operations implement a “compound mixing”architecture that enables use of such high frequencies.

FIG. 7 depicts an embodiment of the IF/BB component 794 shown in FIG. 6.The IF/BB component of FIG. 7 includes similar signal paths 702 for eachof the four receive paths/RX antennas and each signal path includes alow pass filter (LPF) 704, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) 762, amixer 706, and a decimation filter 708. The operation of receive path 1,RX1, is described.

As described above with reference to FIG. 6, the 2.5 MHz signal frommixer 692 (FIG. 6) is provided to the IF/BB component 694/794, inparticular, to the LPF 704 of the IF/BB component 794. In an embodiment,the LPF filters the 2.5 MHz signal to remove the negative frequencyspectrum and noise outside of the desired bandwidth. After passingthrough the LPF, the 2.5 MHz signal is provided to the ADC 762, whichconverts the 2.5 MHz signal (e.g., IF signal) to digital data at asampling rate of 10 MHz (e.g., as 12-16 bits of “real” data). The mixer706 multiplies the digital data with a complex vector to generate adigital signal (e.g., 12-16 bits of “complex” data), which is alsosampled at 10 MHz. Although the signal is sampled at 10 MHz, othersampling rates are possible, e.g., 20 MHz. The digital data sampled at10 MHz is provided to the decimation filter, which is used to reduce theamount of data by selectively discarding a portion of the sampled data.For example, the decimation filter reduces the amount of data byreducing the sampling rate and getting rid of a certain percentage ofthe samples, such that fewer samples are retained. The reduction insample retention can be represented by a decimation factor, M, and maybe, for example, about 10 or 100 depending on the application, where Mequals the input sample rate divided by the output sample rate.

The output of the decimation filter 706 is digital data that isrepresentative of the electromagnetic energy that was received at thecorresponding RX antenna. In an embodiment, samples are output from theIF/BB component 794 at rate of 1 MHz (using a decimation factor of 10)or at a rate of 100 kHz (using a decimation factor of 100). The digitaldata is provided to a DSP and/or CPU 764 via a bus 710 for furtherprocessing. For example, the digital data is processed to isolate asignal from a particular location, e.g., to isolate signals thatcorrespond to electromagnetic energy that was reflected by the blood ina vein of the person. In an embodiment, signal processing techniques areapplied to implement beamforming, Doppler effect processing, and/orleakage mitigation to isolate a desired signal from other undesiredsignals.

In conventional RF systems, the analog-to-digital conversion processinvolves a high direct current (DC), such that the I (“real”) and Q(“complex”) components of the RF signal at DC are lost at the ADC. Usingthe system as described above with reference to FIGS. 5-7, theintermediate IF is not baseband, so I and Q can be obtained afteranalog-to-digital conversion and digital mixing as shown in FIG. 7.

In an embodiment, digital signal processing of the received signals mayinvolve implementing Kalman filters to smooth out noisy data. In anotherembodiment, digital signal processing of the received signals mayinvolve combining receive chains digitally. Other digital signalprocessing may be used to implement beamforming, Doppler effectprocessing, and ranging. Digital signal processing may be implemented ina DSP and/or in a CPU.

In an embodiment, certain components of the sensor system are integratedonto a single semiconductor substrate and/or onto a single packaged ICdevice (e.g., a packaged IC device that includes multiple differentsemiconductor substrates (e.g., different die) and antennas). Forexample, elements such as the components of the RF front-end 548, and/orcomponents of the digital baseband system 550 (FIGS. 5-7) are integratedonto the same semiconductor substrate (e.g., the same die). In anembodiment, components of the sensor system are integrated onto a singlesemiconductor substrate that is approximately 5 mm×5 mm. In anembodiment, the TX antennas and RX antennas are attached to an outersurface of the semiconductor substrate and/or to an outer surface of anIC package and electrically connected to the circuits integrated intothe semiconductor substrate. In an embodiment, the TX and RX antennasare attached to the outer surface of the IC package such that the TX andRX antenna attachments points are very close to the correspondingtransmit and receive circuits such as the PAs and LNAs. In anembodiment, the semiconductor substrate and the packaged IC deviceincludes outputs for outputting electrical signals to another componentssuch as a DSP, a CPU, and or a bus. In some embodiments, the packaged ICdevice may include the DSP and/or CPU or the packaged IC device mayinclude some DSP and/or CPU functionality.

FIG. 8A depicts an example embodiment of a plan view of an IC device 820that includes two TX antennas 844 and four RX antennas 846 as well assome of the components from the RF front-end and the digital baseband(not shown) as described above with regard to FIGS. 5-7. In FIG. 8A, theouter footprint of the IC device represents a packaged IC device 822 andthe inner footprint (as represented by the dashed box 824) represents asemiconductor substrate that includes circuits that are fabricated intothe semiconductor substrate to conduct and process electrical signalsthat are transmitted by the TX antennas and/or received by the RXantennas. In the embodiment of FIG. 8A, the packaged IC device hasdimensions of 5 mm×5 mm (e.g., referred to as the device “footprint”)and the semiconductor substrate has a footprint that is slightly smallerthan the footprint of the packaged IC device, e.g., the semiconductorsubstrate has dimensions of approximately 0.1-1 mm less than thepackaged IC device on each side. Although not shown, in an exampleembodiment, the packaged IC device has a thickness of approximately0.3-2 mm and the semiconductor substrate has a thickness in the range ofabout 0.1-0.7 mm. In an embodiment, the TX and RX antennas are designedfor millimeter range radio waves, for example, radio waves of 122-126GHz have wavelengths in the range of 2.46 to 2.38 mm. In FIG. 8A, the TXand RX antennas are depicted as square boxes of approximately 1 mm×1 mmand the antennas are all attached on the same planar surface of the ICdevice package. For example, the antennas are attached on the topsurface of the IC package (e.g., on top of a ceramic package material)directly above the semiconductor substrate with conductive vias thatelectrically connect a conductive pad of the semiconductor substrate toa transmission line of the antenna. Although the TX and RX antennas maynot be square, the boxes correspond to an approximate footprint of theTX and RX antennas. In an embodiment, the antennas are microstrip patchantennas and the dimensions of the antennas are a function of thewavelength of the radio waves. Other types of antennas such as dipoleantennas are also possible. FIG. 8B depicts an embodiment of amicrostrip patch antenna 830 that can be used for the TX and/or RXantennas 844 and 846 of the IC device of FIG. 8A. As shown in FIG. 8B,the microstrip patch antenna has a patch portion 832 (with dimensionslength (L)×width (W)) and a microstrip transmission line 834. In someembodiments, microstrip patch antennas have length and width dimensionsof one-half the wavelength of the target radio waves. Thus, microstrippatch antennas designed for radio waves of 122-126 GHz (e.g.,wavelengths in the range of 2.46 to 2.38 mm), the patch antennas mayhave length and width dimensions of around 1.23-1.19 mm, but no morethan 1.3 mm. It is noted that because antenna size is a function ofwavelength, the footprint of the antennas shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B canbe made to be around one-half the size of antennas designed for radiowaves around 60 GHz (e.g., wavelength of approximately 5 mm).Additionally, the small antenna size of the antennas shown in FIGS. 8Aand 8B makes it advantageous to attach all six of the antennas to thetop surface of the package of the IC device within the footprint of thesemiconductor substrate, which makes the packaged IC device more compactthan known devices such as the “Soli” device. That is, attaching all ofthe TX and RX antennas within the footprint of the semiconductorsubstrate (or mostly within the footprint of the semiconductorsubstrate, e.g., greater than 90% within the footprint).

In an embodiment, the RX antennas form a phased antenna array and forthe application of health monitoring it is desirable to have as muchspatial separation as possible between the RX antennas to improveoverall signal quality by obtaining unique signals from each RX antenna.For example, spatial separation of the RX antennas enables improveddepth discrimination to isolate signals that correspond to reflectionsfrom blood in a vein from reflections from other anatomical features.Thus, as shown in FIG. 8A, the RX antennas 846 are located at thecorners of the rectangular shaped IC device. For example, the RXantennas are located flush with the corners of the semiconductorsubstrate 824 and/or flush with the corners of the IC device package orwithin less than about 0.5 mm from the corners of the semiconductorsubstrate 824 and/or from the corners of the IC device package. Althoughthe IC device shown in FIG. 8A has dimensions of 5 mm×5 mm, IC deviceshaving smaller (e.g., approximately 3 mm×3 mm) or larger dimensions arepossible. In an embodiment, the IC device has dimensions of no more than7 mm×7 mm.

In the embodiment of FIG. 8A, the TX antennas 844 are located onopposite sides of the IC chip approximately in the middle between thetwo RX antennas 846 that are on the same side. As shown in FIG. 8A, theTX antenna on the left side of the IC device is vertically aligned withthe two RX antennas on the left side of the IC device and the TX antennaon the right side of the IC device is vertically aligned with the two RXantennas on the right side of the IC device. Although one arrangement ofthe TX and RX antennas is shown in FIG. 8A, other arrangements arepossible.

At extremely high frequencies (e.g., 30-300 GHz) conductor losses can bevery significant. Additionally, conductor losses at extremely highfrequencies are known to be frequency-dependent, with higher frequenciesexhibiting higher conductor losses. In many health monitoringapplications, power, such as battery power, is a limited resource thatmust be conserved. Additionally, for reasons as described above such aslimiting undesired reflections, low power transmissions may be desirablefor health monitoring reasons. Because of the low power environment,conductor losses can severely impact performance of the sensor system.For example, significant conductor losses can occur between the antennasand the conductive pads of the semiconductor substrate, or “die,” andbetween the conductive pads and the transmit/receive components in thedie, e.g., the channel-specific circuits such as amplifiers, filters,mixers, etc. In order to reduce the impact of conductor losses in thesensor system, it is important to locate the antennas as close to thechannel-specific transmit/receive components of the die as possible. Inan embodiment, the transmit and receive components are strategicallyfabricated on the semiconductor substrate in locations that correspondto the desired locations of the antennas. Thus, when the TX and RXantennas are physically and electrically attached to the IC device, theTX and RX antennas are as close as possible to the transmit and receivecomponents on the die, e.g., collocated such that a portion of thechannel specific transmit/receive component overlaps from a plan viewperspective a portion of the respective TX/RX antenna. FIG. 8C depictsan example of the physical layout of circuit components on asemiconductor substrate, such as the semiconductor substrate (die)depicted in FIG. 8A. In the embodiment of FIG. 8C, the die 824 includestwo TX components 854, four RX components 856, shared circuits 860, andan input/output interface (I/O) 862. In the example of FIG. 8C, each TXcomponent includes channel-specific circuits (not shown) such asamplifiers, each RX component includes channel-specific circuits (notshown) such as mixers, filters, and LNAs, and the shared circuitsinclude, for example, a voltage control oscillator (VCO), a localoscillator (LO), frequency synthesizers, PLLs, BPFs, divider(s), mixers,ADCs, buffers, digital logic, a DSP, CPU, or some combination thereofthat may be utilized in conjunction with the channel-specific TX and RXcomponents. As shown in FIG. 8C, the transmit and receive components 854and 856 each include an interface 864 (such as a conductive pad) thatprovides an electrical interface between the circuits on the die and acorresponding antenna. FIG. 8D depicts a packaged IC device 822 similarto the packaged IC device shown in FIG. 8A superimposed over thesemiconductor substrate 824 shown in FIG. 8C. FIG. 8D illustrates thelocations of the TX and RX antennas 844 and 846 relative to the transmitand receive components 854 and 856 of the die (from a plan viewperspective). As illustrated in FIG. 8D, the TX and RX antennas 844 and846 are located directly over the interfaces 864 of the correspondingtransmit and receive components 854 and 856. In an embodiment in whichthe antennas are attached to a top surface of the package (which may beless than 0.5 mm thick), the antennas can be connected to the interfaceof the respective transmit/receive components by a distance that is afraction of a millimeter. In an embodiment, a via that is perpendicularto the plane of the die connects the interface of the transmit/receivecomponent to a transmission line of the antenna. More than one via maybe used when the antenna has more than one transmission line. Such acollocated configuration enables the desired distribution of the TX andRX antennas to be maintained while effectively managing conductor lossesin the system. Such a close proximity between antennas andchannel-specific circuits of the die is extremely important atfrequencies in the 122-126 GHz range and provides an improvement oversensor systems that include conductive traces of multiple millimetersbetween the antennas and the die.

Although the example of FIGS. 8A-8D shows the antennas within thefootprint of the packaged IC device 822, in some other embodiments, theantennas may extend outside the footprint of the die and/or the packagedIC device while still being collocated with the correspondingtransmit/receive components on the die. For example, the antennas may bedipole antennas that have portions of the antennas that extend outsidethe footprint of the die and/or the packaged IC device.

It has been realized that for the application of monitoring a healthparameter such as the blood glucose level in the blood of a person, itis important that the TX antennas are able to illuminate at least onevein near the skin of the person. In order for a TX antenna toilluminate at least one vein near the skin of the person, it isdesirable for at least one of the antennas to be spatially close to avein. Because of variations in the locations of veins relative to thelocation of the monitoring system (e.g., a smartwatch), it has beenfound that a transverse configuration of the TX antennas relative to theexpected location of a vein or veins provides desirable conditions formonitoring a health parameter such as the blood glucose level in theblood of a person. When the wearable device is worn on a portion of alimb such as the wrist, the TX antennas are distributed in a transverseconfiguration relative to the limb and relative to the expected locationof a vein or veins that will be illuminated by the TX antennas.

FIG. 9 depicts an IC device 922 similar to that of FIG. 8A overlaid onthe hand/wrist 912 that is described above with reference to FIG. 2A-2C.The IC device is oriented with regard to the basilic and cephalic veins914 and 916 such that the two TX antennas 944 are configured transverseto the basilic and cephalic veins. That is, the two TX antennas aredistributed transversely relative to the orientation (e.g., the lineardirection) of the vessel or vessels that will be monitored, such as thebasilic and cephalic veins. For example, in a transverse configuration,a straight line that passes through the two TX antennas would betransverse to the vessel or vessels that will be monitored, such as thebasilic and cephalic veins. In an embodiment in which the wearabledevice is worn on the wrist, the transverse configuration of the TXantennas is such that a line passing through both of the TX antennas isapproximately orthogonal to the wrist and approximately orthogonal tothe orientation of the vessel or vessels that will be monitored, such asthe basilic and cephalic veins. For example, a line passing through bothof the TX antennas and the orientation of the vessel or vessels thatwill be monitored, such as the basilic and cephalic veins, may bewithout about 20 degrees from orthogonal.

FIG. 10 depicts an IC device 1022 similar to that of FIG. 8A overlaid onthe back of the smartwatch 1000 described above with reference to FIGS.1A and 1B. As shown in FIGS. 9 and 10, the two TX antennas areconfigured such that when the smartwatch is worn on the wrist, the twoTX antennas are transverse to veins such as the basilic and cephalicveins that run parallel to the length of the arm and wrist.

FIGS. 11 and 12 are provided to illustrate the expanded illuminationvolume that can be achieved by a sensor system 1010 that includes atransverse TX antenna configuration. FIG. 11 depicts a side view of asensor system in a case in which the two TX antennas 1044 are configuredparallel to veins such as the basilic and cephalic veins of a personwearing the smartwatch 1000. In the view shown in FIG. 11, the two TXantennas are in-line with each other such that only one of the two TXantennas is visible from the side view. When the TX antennas transmitmillimeter range radio waves, the electromagnetic energy may have atwo-dimensional (2D) illumination pattern as illustrated by dashed line1020. Given the two-dimensional pattern as illustrated in FIG. 11, thetwo TX antennas illuminate an area that has a maximum width in thetransverse direction (transverse to veins that run parallel to thelength of the arm and wrist and referred to herein as the transversewidth) identified by arrow 1022. Although the illumination pattern isdescribed and illustrated in two dimensions (2D), it should beunderstood that illumination actually covers a 3D space or volume.

FIG. 12 depicts the same side view as shown in FIG. 11 in a case inwhich the two TX antennas 1044 are configured transverse to veins suchas the basilic and cephalic veins of a person wearing the smartwatch1000. In the view shown in FIG. 12, the two TX antennas are spatiallyseparated from each other such that both of the TX antennas are visiblefrom the side view. When the TX antennas transmit millimeter range radiowaves, the electromagnetic energy may have a 2D illumination pattern asillustrated by dashed lines 1024. Given the 2D elimination patterns ofthe two TX antennas, the two TX antennas combine to illuminate an areathat has a width in the transverse direction (transverse width)identified by arrow 1026, which is wider than the transverse width forthe TX antenna configuration shown in FIG. 11 (e.g., almost twice aswide). A wider illumination area improves the coverage area for thesensor system 1010 and increases the likelihood that the sensor systemwill illuminate a vein in the person wearing the smartwatch. Anincreased likelihood that a vein is illuminated can provide morereliable feedback from the feature of interest (e.g., blood in the vein)and thus more reliable monitoring results. Additionally, a widerillumination area can increase the power of the radio waves thatilluminate a vein, resulting in an increase in the power of theelectromagnetic energy that is reflected from the vein, which canimprove the quality of the received signals.

It has been established that the amount of glucose in the blood (bloodglucose level) affects the reflectivity of millimeter range radio waves.However, when millimeter range radio waves are applied to the human body(e.g., at or near the skin surface), electromagnetic energy is reflectedfrom many objects including the skin itself, fibrous tissue such asmuscle and tendons, and bones. In order to effectively monitor a healthparameter such as the blood glucose level of a person, electricalsignals that correspond to electromagnetic energy that is reflected fromblood (e.g., from the blood in a vein) should be isolated fromelectrical signals that correspond to electromagnetic energy that isreflected from other objects such as the skin itself, fibrous tissue,and bone, as well as from electrical signals that correspond toelectromagnetic energy that is emitted directly from the TX antennas(referred to herein as electromagnetic energy leakage or simply as“leakage”) and received by an antenna without passing through the skinof the person.

Various techniques that can be implemented alone or in combination toisolate electrical signals that correspond to reflections from bloodfrom other electrical signals that correspond to other reflections (suchas reflections from bone and/or fibrous tissue such as muscle andtendons) and/or signals that correspond to leakage are described below.Such techniques relate to and/or involve, for example, transmissioncharacteristics, beamforming, Doppler effect processing, leakagemitigation, and antenna design.

As is known in the field, radar detection involves transmittingelectromagnetic energy and receiving reflected portions of thetransmitted electromagnetic energy. Techniques for transmittingelectromagnetic energy in radar systems include impulse, chirp, andstepped frequency techniques.

FIGS. 13A-13C depict frequency versus time graphs of impulse, chirp, andstepped frequency techniques for transmitting electromagnetic energy ina radar system. FIG. 13A depicts a radar transmission technique thatinvolves transmitting pulses of electromagnetic energy at the samefrequency for each pulse, referred to as “impulse” transmission. In theexample of FIG. 13A, each pulse is at frequency, f₁, and lasts for aconstant interval of approximately 2 ns. The pulses are each separatedby approximately 2 ns.

FIG. 13B depicts a radar transmission technique that involvestransmitting pulses of electromagnetic energy at an increasing frequencyfor each interval, referred to herein as “chirp” transmission. In theexample of FIG. 13B, each chirp increases in frequency from frequency f₀to f₁ over an interval of 2 ns and each chirp is separated by 2 ns. Inother embodiments, the chirps may be separated by very short intervals(e.g., a fraction of a nanosecond) or no interval.

FIG. 13C depicts a radar transmission technique that involvestransmitting pulses of electromagnetic energy at the same frequencyduring a particular pulse but at an increased frequency frompulse-to-pulse, referred to herein as a “stepped frequency” transmissionor a stepped frequency pattern. In the example of FIG. 13C, each pulsehas a constant frequency over the interval of the pulse (e.g., over 2ns), but the frequency increases by an increment of Δf frompulse-to-pulse. For example, the frequency of the first pulse is f₀, thefrequency of the second pulse is f₀+Δf, the frequency of the third pulseis f₀+2Δf, and the frequency of the fourth pulse is f₀+3Δf, and so on.

In an embodiment, the sensor system described herein is operated usingstepped frequency transmission. Operation of the sensor system usingstepped frequency transmission is described in more detail below. FIG.14 depicts a burst of electromagnetic energy using stepped frequencytransmission. The frequency of the pulses in the burst can be expressedas:

f _(n) =f ₀ +nΔf

where f₀=starting carrier frequency, Δf=step size, τ=pulse length(active, per frequency), T=repetition interval, n=1, . . . N, each burstconsists of N pulses (frequencies) and a coherent processing interval(CPI)=N·T=1 full burst.

Using stepped frequency transmission enables relatively high rangeresolution. High range resolution can be advantageous when trying tomonitor a health parameter such as the blood glucose level in a veinthat may, for example, have a diameter in the range of 1-4 mm. Forexample, in order to effectively isolate a signal that corresponds toreflections of electromagnetic energy from the blood in a 1-4 mmdiameter vein, it is desirable to have a high range resolution, which isprovided by the 122-126 GHz frequency range.

Using stepped frequency transmission, range resolution can be expressedas:

ΔR=c/2B

wherein c=speed of light, B=effective bandwidth. The range resolutioncan then be expressed as:

ΔR=c/2N·Δf

wherein B=N·Δf. Thus, range resolution does not depend on instantaneousbandwidth and the range resolution can be increased arbitrarily byincreasing N·Δf.

In an embodiment, the electromagnetic energy is transmitted from the TXantennas in the frequency range of approximately 122-126 GHz, whichcorresponds to a total bandwidth of approximately 4 GHz, e.g., B=4 GHz.FIG. 15A depicts a graph of the transmission bandwidth, B, oftransmitted electromagnetic energy in the frequency range of 122-126GHz. Within a 4 GHz bandwidth, from 122-126 GHz, discrete frequencypulses can be transmitted. For example, in an embodiment, the number ofdiscrete frequencies that can be transmitted ranges from, for example,64-256 discrete frequencies. In a case with 64 discrete frequency pulsesand a repetition interval, T, over 4 GHz of bandwidth, the step size,Δf, is 62.5 MHz (e.g., 4 GHz of bandwidth divided by 64=62.5 MHz) and ina case with 256 discrete frequency pulses and a repetition interval, T,over 4 GHz of bandwidth, the step size, Δf, is 15.625 MHz (e.g., 4 GHzof bandwidth divided by 256=15.625 MHz). FIG. 15B depicts a graph ofstepped frequency pulses that have a repetition interval, T, and a stepsize, Δf, of 62.5 MHz (e.g., 4 GHz of bandwidth divided by 64=62.5 MHz).As described above, an example sensor system has four RX antennas.Assuming a discrete frequency can be received on each RX antenna,degrees of freedom (DOF) of the sensor system in the receive operationscan be expressed as: 4 RX antennas×64 discrete frequencies=256 DOF; and4 RX antennas×256 discrete frequencies=1K DOF. The number of degrees offreedom (also referred to as “transmission frequency diversity”) canprovide signal diversity, which can be beneficial in an environment suchas the anatomy of a person. For example, the different discretefrequencies may have different responses to the different anatomicalfeatures of the person. Thus, greater transmission frequency diversitycan translate to greater signal diversity, and ultimately to moreaccurate health monitoring.

One feature of a stepped frequency transmission approach is that thesensor system receives reflected electromagnetic energy at basically thesame frequency over the repetition interval, T. That is, as opposed tochirp transmission, the frequency of the pulse does not change over theinterval of the pulse and therefore the received reflectedelectromagnetic energy is at the same frequency as the transmittedelectromagnetic energy for the respective interval. FIG. 16A depicts afrequency versus time graph of transmission pulses, with transmit (TX)interval and receive (RX) intervals identified relative to the pulses.As illustrated in FIG. 16A, RX operations for the first pulse occurduring the pulse length, τ, of repetition interval, T, and during theinterval between the next pulse. FIG. 16B depicts an amplitude versustime graph of the transmission waveforms that corresponds to FIG. 16A.As illustrated in FIG. 16B, the amplitude of the pulses is constantwhile the frequency increases by Δf at each repetition interval, T.

In an embodiment, the power of the transmitted electromagnetic energycan be set to achieve a desired penetration depth and/or a desiredillumination volume. In an embodiment, the transmission power from theTX antennas is about 15 dBm.

In an embodiment, electromagnetic energy can be transmitted from the TXantennas one TX antenna at a time (referred to herein as “transmitdiversity”). For example, a signal is transmitted from a first one ofthe two TX antennas while the second one of the two TX antennas is idleand then a signal is transmitted from the second TX antenna while thefirst TX antenna is idle. Transmit diversity may reveal thatillumination from one of the two TX antennas provides a higher qualitysignal than illumination from the other of the two TX antennas. This maybe especially true when trying to illuminate a vein whose location mayvary from person to person and/or from moment to moment (e.g., dependingon the position of the wearable device relative to the vein). Thus,transmit diversity can provide sets of received signals that areindependent of each other and may have different characteristics, e.g.,signal power, SNR, etc.

Some theory related to operating the sensor system using a steppedfrequency approach is described with reference to FIG. 17, whichillustrates operations related to transmitting, receiving, andprocessing phases of the sensor system operation. With reference to theupper portion of FIG. 17, a time versus amplitude graph of a transmittedsignal burst, similar to the graph of FIG. 16B, is shown. The graphrepresents the waveforms of five pulses of a burst at frequencies of f₀,f₀+Δf, f₀+2Δf, f₀+3Δf, and f₀+4Δf.

The middle portion of FIG. 17 represents values of received signals thatcorrespond to the amplitude, phase, and frequency of each pulse in theburst of four pulses. In an embodiment, received signals are placed inrange bins such that there is one complex sample per range bin perfrequency. Inverse Discrete Fourier Transforms (IDFTs) are thenperformed on a per-range bin basis to determine range information. Thebottom portion of FIG. 17 illustrates an IDFT process that produces asignal that corresponds to the range of a particular object. Forexample, the range may correspond to a vein such as the basilic vein. Inan embodiment, some portion of the signal processing is performeddigitally by a DSP or CPU. Although one example of a signal processingscheme is described with reference to FIG. 17, other signal processingschemes may be implemented to isolate signals that correspond toreflections from blood in a vein (such as the basilic vein) from signalsthat correspond to reflections from other undesired anatomical features(such as tissue and bones) and from signals that correspond to leakagefrom the TX antennas.

Beamforming is a signal processing technique used in sensor arrays fordirectional signal transmission and/or reception. Beamforming can beimplemented by combining elements in a phased antenna array in such away that signals at particular angles experience constructiveinterference while other signals experience destructive interference.Beamforming can be used in both transmit operations and receiveoperations in order to achieve spatial selectivity, e.g., to isolatesome received signals from other received signals. In an embodiment,beamforming techniques are utilized to isolate signals that correspondto reflections from blood in a vein (such as the basilic vein) fromsignals that correspond to reflections from other undesired anatomicalfeatures (such as tissue and bones) and from signals that correspond toleakage from the TX antennas. An example of the concept of beamformingas applied to blood glucose monitoring using a wearable device such as asmartwatch is illustrated in FIG. 18. In particular, FIG. 18 depicts anexpanded view of the anatomy of a wrist, similar to that described abovewith reference to FIGS. 2A-4D, relative to RX antennas 1846 of a sensorsystem 1810 that is integrated into a wearable device such as asmartwatch 1800. The anatomical features of the wrist that areillustrated in FIG. 18 include the skin 1822, a vein such as the basilicvein 1816, the radius bone 1834, and the ulna bone 1836. FIG. 18 alsoillustrates 2D representations of reception beams 1850 (although itshould be understood that the beams occupy a 3D space/volume) thatcorrespond to electromagnetic energy that is reflected from the blood inthe basilic vein to the respective RX antenna.

In an embodiment, a beamforming technique involves near-fieldbeamforming, where each RX antenna of the phased antenna array issteered independently to a different angle as opposed to far-fieldbeamforming where all of the antennas in a phased antenna array aresteered collectively to the same angle. For example, near-fieldbeamforming is used when the target is less than about 4-10 wavelengthsfrom the phased antenna array. In the case of a sensor system operatingat 122-126 GHz, 4-10 wavelengths is approximately within about 10-25 mmfrom the phased antenna array. In the case of monitoring a healthparameter related to blood, the blood vessels that are monitored (e.g.,the basilic and/or cephalic veins) are likely to be less than 10-25 mmfrom the phase antenna array. Thus, in an embodiment, near-fieldbeamforming techniques are used to isolate desired signals (e.g.,signals that correspond to reflections from blood in a vein such as thebasilic vein) from undesired signals (e.g., signals that correspond toreflections from other undesired anatomical features, such as tissue andbones, and from signals that correspond to leakage from the TXantennas). Beamforming can be accomplished in digital, in analog, or ina combination of digital and analog signal processing. In an embodiment,the ranging technique described above, which utilizes steppedfrequencies, is used in combination with beamforming to isolate signalsthat correspond to the reflection of electromagnetic energy from thebasilic vein.

The Doppler effect relates to the change in frequency or wavelength of awave (e.g., an electromagnetic wave) in relation to an observer, whichis moving relative to the source of the wave. The Doppler effect can beused to identify fluid flow by sensing the shift in wavelength ofreflections from particles moving with the fluid flow. In accordancewith an embodiment of the invention, signal processing based on theDoppler effect is applied to signals received by the sensor system toisolate signals that correspond to reflections from flowing blood fromsignals that correspond to reflections from objects that are stationary,at least with respect to the flowing blood. As described above,millimeter wave radio waves are transmitted below the skin to illuminateanatomical features below the skin. In the area of the body around thewrist, blood flowing through veins such as the basilic and cephalicveins is moving relative to the other anatomical features in the area.Thus, Doppler effect theory and corresponding signal processing is usedto filter for those signals that correspond to movement (movementrelative to other signals that correspond to stationary objects). In thehealth monitoring application as described herein, the signals thatcorrespond to the flowing blood can be identified by applying theDoppler effect theory to the signal processing to isolate the signalsthat correspond to the flowing blood. The isolated signals can then beused to measure a health parameter such as blood glucose level.

FIG. 19 illustrates an IC device 1922 similar to the IC device 822 shownin FIG. 8A relative to a vein 1916 such as the basilic or cephalic veinin the wrist area of a person. FIG. 19 also illustrates the flow ofblood through the vein relative to the IC device. Because the blood ismoving relative to the TX and RX antennas 1944 and 1946 of the sensorsystem, Doppler effect theory can be applied to signal processing of thereceived signals to isolate the signals that correspond to the flowingblood from the signals that correspond to objects that are stationaryrelative to the flowing blood. For example, received signals thatcorrespond to flowing blood are isolated from received signals thatcorrespond to stationary objects such as bone and fibrous tissue such asmuscle and tendons. In an embodiment, Doppler processing involvesperforming a fast Fourier transform (FFT) on samples to separate thesamples into component Doppler shift frequency bins. Frequency bins thatrepresent no frequency shift can be ignored (as they correspond toreflections from stationary objects) and frequency bins that represent afrequency shift (which corresponds to reflections from a moving object)can be used to determine a health parameter. That is, Doppler effectprocessing can be used to isolate signals that represent no frequencyshift (as they correspond to reflections from stationary objects) fromfrequency bins that represent a frequency shift (which correspond toreflections from a moving object). In an embodiment, Doppler effectsignal processing may involve sampling over a relatively long period oftime to achieve small enough velocity bins to decipher relativemovement. Thus, Doppler effect theory and corresponding signalprocessing can be used to filter for only those signals that correspondto movement (movement relative to the other received signals). Such anapproach allows signals that correspond to reflections from flowingblood, e.g., blood in a vein, to be isolated from other signals, e.g.,signals that correspond to stationary object. In an embodiment, Dopplersignal processing is performed digitally by a DSP and/or by a CPU.

With reference to FIG. 8A, during operation of the IC device 822, someelectromagnetic energy that is emitted from the TX antennas 844 will bereceived directly by at least one of the RX antennas 846 without firstpassing through the skin of the person. Signals that correspond to suchelectromagnetic energy do not correspond to a health parameter that isto be monitored and are referred to herein as electromagnetic energyleakage or simply as “leakage.” In an embodiment, various signalprocessing techniques may be implemented to mitigate the effects ofleakage. For example, signals that correspond to leakage should beisolated from signals that correspond to reflections of radio waves fromblood in a vein. In an embodiment, leakage is mitigated by applyingsignal processing to implement beamforming, Doppler effect processing,range discrimination or a combination thereof. Other techniques such asantenna design and antenna location can also be used to mitigate theeffects of leakage.

In an embodiment, signal processing to isolate signals that correspondto reflections of radio waves from blood in a vein from signals thatcorrespond to reflections of radio waves from other anatomical objects(such as bone and fibrous tissue such as muscle and tendons) and fromsignals that correspond to leakage can be implemented in part or in fulldigitally by a DSP. FIG. 20 is an embodiment of a DSP 2064 that includesa Doppler effect component 2070, a beamforming component 2072, and aranging component 2074. In an embodiment, the Doppler effect componentis configured to implement digital Doppler effect processing, thebeamforming component is configured to implement digital beamforming,and the ranging component is configured to implement digital ranging.Although the DSP is shown as including the three components, the DSP mayinclude fewer components and the DSP may include other digital signalprocessing capability. The DSP may include hardware, software, and/orfirmware or a combination thereof that is configured to implement thedigital signal processing that is described herein. In an embodiment,the DSP may be embodied as an ARM processor (Advanced RISC (reducedinstruction set computing) Machine). In some embodiments, components ofa DSP can be implemented in the same IC device as the RF front-end andthe TX and RX antennas. In other embodiments, components of the DSP areimplemented in a separate IC device or IC devices.

In an embodiment, the transmission of millimeter radio waves and theprocessing of signals that correspond to received radio waves is adynamic process that operates to locate signals corresponding to thedesired anatomy (e.g., signals that correspond to reflections of radiowaves from a vein) and to improve the quality of the desired signals(e.g., to improve the SNR). For example, the process is dynamic in thesense that the process is an iterative and ongoing process as thelocation of the sensor system relative to a vein or veins changes.

Although the techniques described above are focused on monitoring theblood glucose level in a person, the disclosed techniques are alsoapplicable to monitoring other parameters of a person's health such as,for example, blood pressure and heart rate. For example, thereflectively of blood in a vessel such as the basilic vein will changerelative to a change in blood pressure. The change in reflectivity asmonitored by the sensor system can be correlated to a change in bloodpressure and ultimately to an absolute value of a person's bloodpressure. Additionally, monitored changes in blood pressure can becorrelated to heart beats and converted over time to a heart rate, e.g.,in beats per minute. In other embodiments, the disclosed techniques canbe used to monitor other parameters of a person's health that areaffected by the chemistry of the blood. For example, the disclosedtechniques may be able to detect changes in blood chemistry thatcorrespond to the presence of foreign chemicals such as alcohol,narcotics, cannabis, etc. The above-described techniques may also beable to monitor other parameters related to a person, such as biometricparameters.

In an embodiment, health monitoring using the techniques describedabove, may involve a calibration process. For example, a calibrationprocess may be used for a particular person and a particular monitoringdevice to enable desired monitoring quality.

The above-described techniques are used to monitor a health parameter(or parameters) related to blood in a blood vessel or in blood vesselsof a person. The blood vessels may include, for example, arteries,veins, and/or capillaries. The health monitoring technique can targetblood vessels other than the basilic and/or cephalic veins. For example,other near-surface blood vessels (e.g., blood vessels in thesubcutaneous layer) such as arteries may be targeted. Additionally,locations other than the wrist area can be targeted for healthmonitoring. For example, locations in around the ear may be a desirablelocation for health monitoring, including, for example, the superficialtemporal vein and/or artery and/or the anterior auricular vein orartery. In an embodiment, the sensor system may be integrated into adevice such as a hearing aid or other wearable device that is attachedto the ear or around or near the ear. In another embodiment, locationsin and around the elbow joint of the arm may be a desirable location forhealth monitoring. For example, in or around the basilica vein or thecephalic vein at or near the elbow.

Although the techniques are described as using a frequency range of122-126 GHz, some or all of the above-described techniques may beapplicable to frequency ranges other than 122-126 GHz. For example, thetechniques may be applicable to frequency ranges around 60 GHz (e.g.,58-62 GHz). In another embodiment, the techniques described herein maybe applicable to the 2-6 GHz frequency range. For example, a systemsimilar to that described with reference to FIG. 6 may be used toimplement health monitoring by transmitting and receiving RF energy inthe 2-6 GHz range. In still another embodiment, multiple non-contiguousfrequency ranges may be used to implement health monitoring. Forexample, health monitoring may be implemented using both the 2-6 GHzfrequency range and the 122-126 GHz frequency range. For example, in anembodiment, stepped frequency scanning in implemented in the lowerfrequency range and then in the higher frequency range, or vice versa.Using multiple non-contiguous frequency ranges (e.g., both the 2-6 GHzfrequency range and the 122-126 GHz frequency range) may provideimproved accuracy of health monitoring.

In an embodiment, the sensor system may be embedded into a differentlocation in a monitoring device. For example, in an embodiment, a sensorsystem (or a portion of the sensor system such as IC device as shown inFIG. 8A) is embedded into an attachment device such as the strap of asmartwatch so that the sensor system can target a different blood vesselin the person. For example, the sensor system may be embedded into thestrap of a smartwatch so that a blood vessel at the side area of thewrist and/or at the anterior area of the wrist can be monitored. In suchan embodiment, the strap may include conductive signal paths thatcommunicate signals between the sensor IC device and the processor ofthe smartwatch.

FIG. 21 is a process flow diagram of a method for monitoring a healthparameter in a person. At block 2102, millimeter range radio waves aretransmitted over a three-dimensional (3D) space below the skin surfaceof a person. At block 2104, radio waves are received on multiple receiveantennas, the received radio waves including a reflected portion of thetransmitted radio waves. At block 2106, a signal is isolated from aparticular location in the 3D space in response to receiving the radiowaves on the multiple receive antennas. At block 2108, a signal thatcorresponds to a health parameter in the person is output in response tothe isolated signal. In an embodiment, the health parameter is bloodglucose level. In other embodiments, the health parameter may be bloodpressure or heart rate.

In an embodiment, health monitoring information that is gathered usingthe above-described techniques can be shared. For example, the healthmonitoring information can be displayed on a display device and/ortransmitted to another computing system via, for example, a wirelesslink.

As mentioned above, locations in around the ear may be desirable forhealth monitoring, including, for example, the superficial temporalartery or vein, the anterior auricular artery or vein, and/or theposterior auricular artery. FIG. 22A depicts a side view of the areaaround a person's ear 2200 with the typical approximate locations ofveins and arteries, including the superficial temporal artery 2202, thesuperficial temporal vein 2204, the anterior auricular artery 2206 andvein 2208, the posterior auricular artery 2210, the occipital artery2212, the external carotid artery 2214, and the external jugular vein2216. In an embodiment, a sensor system, such as the sensor systemdescribed herein, may be integrated into a device such as a hearing aidor another wearable device that is attached to the ear or around or nearthe ear. FIG. 22B depicts an embodiment of system 2250 in which at leastelements of an RF front-end 2222 (including the transmit and receiveantennas and corresponding transmit and receive components as shown inFIGS. 5-7) are located separate from a housing 2252 that includes, forexample, a digital processor, wireless communications capability, and asource of electric power, all of which are enclosed within the housing.For example, components of the digital baseband system as shown in FIG.5 may be enclosed within the housing and the housing is connected to theRF front-end by a communications medium 2254, such as a conductive wireor wires. In an embodiment, the housing 2252 is worn behind the ear 2200similar to a conventional hearing aid and the RF front-end 2222 islocated near a blood vessel that is around the ear. For example, the RFfront-end may include adhesive material that enables the RF front-end tobe adhered to the skin near a blood vessel such as, for example, thesuperficial temporal artery 2202 or vein 2204, the anterior auricularartery 2206 or vein 2208, and/or the posterior auricular artery 2210.FIG. 22C illustrates how a device, such as the device depicted in FIG.22B, may be worn near the ear 2200 of a person similar to how aconventional hearing aid is worn. FIG. 22C also shows the RF front-end2222 relative to the superficial temporal artery 2202 and thesuperficial temporal vein 2204 as shown in FIG. 22C. In an embodiment,the sensor system may be integrated with a conventional hearing aid toprovide both hearing assistance and health monitoring. For example, theintegrated system may include a housing, a speaker that is inserted intothe ear, and an RF front-end that is attached to the skin around the earand near to a blood vessel. In other embodiments, a sensor system may beintegrated into ear buds or into some other type of device that is wornaround or near the ear.

Although the magnitude of the reflected RF energy (also referred to asamplitude) that is received by the sensor system has been found tocorrespond to a health parameter, such as blood glucose level, it hasfurther been found that the combination of the amplitude and the phaseof the reflected RF energy can provide improved correspondence to ahealth parameter, such as a blood glucose level. Thus, in an embodiment,a value that corresponds to a health parameter of a person is generatedin response to amplitude and phase data that is generated in response toreceived radio waves. For example, the value that corresponds to ahealth parameter may be a value that indicates a blood glucose level inmg/dL or some other indication of the blood glucose level, a value thatindicates a person's heart rate (e.g., in beats per minute), and/or avalue that indicates a person's blood pressure (e.g., in millimeters ofmercury, mmHg). In an embodiment, a method for monitoring a healthparameter (e.g., blood glucose level) in a person involves transmittingradio waves below the skin surface of a person and across a range ofstepped frequencies, receiving radio waves on a two-dimensional array ofreceive antennas, the received radio waves including a reflected portionof the transmitted radio waves across the range of stepped frequencies,generating data that corresponds to the received radio waves, whereinthe data includes amplitude and phase data across the range of steppedfrequencies, and determining a value that is indicative of a healthparameter in the person in response to the amplitude and phase data. Inan embodiment, the phase data corresponds to detected shifts in sinewaves that are received at the sensor system. In another embodiment, avalue that is indicative of a health parameter in the person may bedetermined in response to phase data but not in response to amplitudedata.

Additionally, it has been found that certain step sizes in steppedfrequency scanning can provide good correspondence in health parametermonitoring. In an embodiment, the frequency range that is scanned usingstepped frequency scanning is on the order of 100 MHz in the 122-126 GHzrange and the step size is in the range of 100 kHz-1 MHz. For example,in an embodiment, the step size over the scanning range is around 100kHz (±10%).

Although the amplitude and phase of the reflected RF energy that isreceived by the sensor system has been found to correspond to a healthparameter, such as blood glucose level, it has further been found thatthe combination of the amplitude and phase of the reflected RF energyand some derived data, which is derived from the amplitude and/or phasedata, can provide improved correspondence to a health parameter, such asblood glucose level. Thus, in an embodiment, some data is derived fromthe amplitude and/or phase data that is generated by the sensor systemin response to the received RF energy and the derived data is used,often in conjunction with the amplitude and/or phase data, to determinea value that corresponds to a health parameter (e.g., the blood glucoselevel) of a person. For example, the data derived from the amplitudeand/or phase data may include statistical data such as the standarddeviation of the amplitude over a time window and/or the standarddeviation of the phase over a time window. In an embodiment, data can bederived from the raw data on a per-receive antenna basis or aggregatedamongst the set of receive antennas. In a particular example, it hasbeen found that the amplitude, phase, and the standard deviation ofamplitude over a time window (e.g., a time window of 1 second)corresponds well to blood glucose levels.

In an embodiment, a method for monitoring a health parameter (e.g.,blood glucose level) in a person involves transmitting radio waves belowthe skin surface of the person and across a range of steppedfrequencies, receiving radio waves on a two-dimensional array of receiveantennas, the received radio waves including a reflected portion of thetransmitted radio waves across the range of stepped frequencies,generating data that corresponds to the received radio waves, whereinthe data includes amplitude and phase data, deriving data from at leastone of the amplitude and phase data, and determining a value that isindicative of a health parameter in the person in response to thederived data. In an embodiment, the value is determined in response tonot only the derived data but also in response to the amplitude data andthe phase data. In an embodiment, the derived data is a statistic thatis derived from amplitude and/or phase data that is generated over atime window. For example, the statistic is one of a standard deviation,a moving average, and a moving mean. In other embodiments, the deriveddata may include multiple statistics derived from the amplitude and/orphase data. In an embodiment, a value that is indicative of a healthparameter is determined in response to a rich set of parametersassociated with the stepped frequency scanning including the scanningfrequency, the detected amplitudes and phases of the received RF energy,data derived from the detected amplitudes and phases, the state of thetransmit components, and the state of the receive components.

Using a sensor system, such as the sensor system described above, thereare various parameters to be considered in the stepped frequencyscanning process. Some parameters are fixed during operation of thesensor system and other parameters may vary during operation of thesensor system. Of the parameters that may vary during operation of thesensor system, some may be controlled and others are simply detected.FIG. 23 is a table of parameters related to stepped frequency scanningin a system such as the above-described system. The table includes anidentification of various parameters and an indication of whether thecorresponding parameter is fixed during operation (e.g., fixed as aphysical condition of the sensor system) or variable during operationand if the parameter is variable, whether the parameter is controlled,or controllable, during operation or simply detected during operation.In the table of FIG. 23, “Time” refers to an aspect of time such as anabsolute moment in time relative to some reference (or may refer to atime increment, e.g., Δt). In an embodiment, the time corresponds to allof the other parameters in the table. That is, the state or value of allof the other parameters in the table is the state or value at that timein the stepped frequency scanning operation. “TX/RX frequency” refers tothe transmit/receive frequency of the sensor system at the correspondingtime as described above with reference to, for example, FIG. 6. The TX1and TX2 state refers to the state of the corresponding transmitter(e.g., whether or not the corresponding power amplifiers (PAs) are on oroff) at the corresponding time. In an embodiment, RF energy transmittedfrom the transmission antennas can be controlled byactivating/deactivating the corresponding PAs. The RX1 and RX2 staterefers to the state of the corresponding receive paths (e.g., whether ornot components of the corresponding receive paths are active orinactive, which may involve powering on/off components in the receivepath) at the corresponding time. In an embodiment, the receiving of RFenergy on the receive paths can be controlled by activating/deactivatingcomponents of the corresponding receive paths. The RX detected amplituderefers to the amplitude of the received signals at the correspondingreceive path and at the corresponding time and the RX detected phaserefers to the phase (or phase shift) of the received signals at thecorresponding receive path and at the corresponding time. The TX and RXantenna 2D position refers to information about the 2D position of theantennas in the sensor system (e.g., the positions of the antennasrelative to each other or the positions of the antennas relative to acommon location) and the antenna orientation refers to antennacharacteristics that may be specific to a particular polarizationorientation. For example, a first set of antennas may be configured forvertical polarization while a second set of antennas is configured forhorizontal polarization in order to achieve polarization diversity.Other antenna orientations and/or configurations are possible. Asindicated in the table, antenna position and antenna orientation arefixed during stepped frequency scanning.

FIG. 24 is a table of parameters similar to the table of FIG. 23 inwhich examples are associated with each parameter for a given step in astepped frequency scanning operation in order to give some context tothe table. As indicated in FIG. 24, the time is “t1” (e.g., someabsolute time indication or a time increment) and the operatingfrequency is “X GHz,” e.g., in the range of 2-6 GHz or 122-126 GHz. Inthe example of FIG. 24, TX1, RX1, and RX4 are active and TX2, RX2, andRX3 are inactive during this step in the stepped frequency scanningoperation (e.g., at time 0). The detected amplitudes of RX1 and RX4 areindicated as “ampl1” and “ampl4” and the detected phases of RX1 and RX4are indicated as “ph1” and “ph4.” The detected amplitudes and phases ofRX2 and RX3 are indicated as “n/a” since the receive paths are inactive.The positions of the transmit and receive antennas are indicated in thelower portion of the table and correspond to the configuration describedabove with reference to FIGS. 8A-8D and the antenna orientations areevenly distributed amongst vertical and horizontal orientations so as toenable polarization diversity. FIG. 25 depicts an embodiment of the ICdevice 820 from FIG. 8A in which the antenna polarization orientation isillustrated by the orientation of the transmit and receive antennas 844and 846, respectively. In FIG. 25, rectangles with the long edgesoriented vertically represent a vertical polarization orientation (e.g.,antennas TX1, RX1, and RX4) and rectangles with the long edges orientedhorizontally represent a horizontal polarization orientation (e.g.,antennas TX2, RX2, and RX3). FIG. 24 reflects the same polarizationorientations in which TX1 is configured to vertically polarize thetransmitted RF energy and RX1 and RX4 are configured to receivevertically polarized RF energy and TX2 is configured to horizontallypolarize the transmitted RF energy and RX2 and RX3 are configured toreceive horizontally polarized RF energy. Although FIG. 24 is providedas an example, the parameter states of the variable parameters areexpected to change during stepped frequency scanning and the fixedparameters may be different in different sensor system configurations.

In an embodiment, during a stepped frequency scanning operation, certaindata, referred to herein as “raw data,” is generated. For example, theraw data is generated as digital data that can be further processed by adigital data processor. FIG. 26 is a table of raw data (e.g., digitaldata) that is generated during stepped frequency scanning. The raw datadepicted in FIG. 26 includes variable parameters of time, TX/RXfrequency, RX1 amplitude/phase, RX2 amplitude/phase, RX3amplitude/phase, and RX4 amplitude/phase. In the example of FIG. 26, theraw data corresponds to a set of data, referred to as a raw data record,which corresponds to one step in the stepped frequency scanning. Forexample, the raw data record corresponds to a particular frequency pulseas shown and described above with reference to FIG. 17. In anembodiment, a raw data record also includes some or all of theparameters identified in FIGS. 23 and 24. For example, the raw datarecord may include other variable and/or fixed parameters thatcorrespond to the stepped frequency scanning operation. In anembodiment, multiple raw data records are accumulated and processed by adigital processor, which may include a DSP, an MCU, and/or a CPU asdescribed above, for example, with reference to FIG. 5. Raw data (e.g.,in the form of raw data records) may be used for machine learning.

As described above, it has been found that the combination of theamplitude and phase of reflected RF energy and some derived data, whichis derived from amplitude and/or phase data (e.g., from the “raw data”),can provide improved correspondence to a health parameter, such as bloodglucose level. Thus, in an embodiment, some data is derived from theamplitude and/or phase data that is generated by the sensor system inresponse to the received RF energy and the derived data is used, oftenin conjunction with the amplitude and/or phase data, to determine avalue that corresponds to a health parameter (e.g., the blood glucoselevel) of a person. For example, the data is derived from the raw datarecords that include the data depicted in FIGS. 23, 24, and 26. Forexample, raw data records are accumulated over time and statistical datais derived from the accumulated raw data records. The statistical data,typically along with at least some portion of the raw data, is then usedto determine a value of a health parameter of a person.

Although it has been found that derived data from the amplitude and/orphase data can provide improved correspondence to a health parameter,such as blood glucose level, the particular model that provides adesired level of correspondence (e.g., that meets a predeterminedaccuracy) may need to be learned in response to a specific set ofoperating conditions. Thus, in an embodiment, a learning process (e.g.,machine learning) is implemented to identify and train a model thatprovides an acceptable correspondence to a health parameter such asblood glucose level.

FIG. 27 illustrates a system 2700 and process for machine learning thatcan be used to identify and train a model that reflects correlationsbetween raw data, derived data, and control data. For example, themachine learning process may be used to identify certain statistics(e.g., standard deviation of amplitude and/or phase over time) that canbe used to improve the correspondence of determined values to actualhealth parameters (such as blood glucose levels) in a person. Themachine learning process can also be used to train a model with trainingdata so that the trained model can accurately and reliably determinevalues for health parameters such as blood glucose level, bloodpressure, and/or heart rate in monitoring devices that are deployed inthe field. With reference to FIG. 27, the system 2700 includes a sensorsystem 2710, a machine learning engine 2760, a trained model database2762, and a control element 2764.

In an embodiment, the sensor system 2710 is similar to or the same asthe sensor system described above. For example, the sensor system isconfigured to implement stepped frequency scanning in the 2-6 GHz and/or122-126 GHz frequency range using two transmit antennas and four receiveantennas. The sensor system generates and outputs raw data to themachine learning engine that can be accumulated and used as describedbelow.

In an embodiment, the control element 2764 is configured to provide acontrol sample to the sensor system 2710. For example, the controlelement includes a sample material 2766 (e.g., a fluid) that has a knownblood glucose level that is subjected to the sensor system.Additionally, in an embodiment, the control element is configured toprovide control data to the machine learning engine that corresponds tothe sample material. For example, the control element may include asample material that has a known blood glucose level that changes as afunction of time and the change in blood glucose level as a function oftime (e.g., Z(t) mg/dL) is provided to the machine learning engine 2760in a manner in which the raw data from the sensor system 2710 and thecontrol data can be time matched (e.g., synchronized). In anotherembodiment, the control element 2764 includes a sample material thatincludes a static parameter, e.g., a static blood glucose level inmg/dL, and the static parameter is manually provided to the machinelearning engine 2760 as the control data. For example, a particularsample is provided within range of RF energy 2770 that is transmittedfrom the sensor system (e.g., within a few millimeters), theconcentration of the sample is provided to the machine learning engine(e.g., manually entered), and the sensor system accumulates digital datathat corresponds to the received RF energy (including a reflectedportion of the transmitted RF energy) and that is correlated to thesample. In one embodiment, the sample material is provided in acontainer such as a vial and in another embodiment, the control elementincludes a person that is simultaneously being monitored by the sensorsystem (e.g., for the purposes of machine learning) and by a second,trusted, control monitoring system. For example, the control elementincludes a person who's blood glucose level, blood pressure, and/orheart rate is being monitored by a known (e.g., clinically accepted)blood glucose level, blood pressure, and/or heart rate monitor while theperson is simultaneously being monitored by the sensor system. The bloodglucose level, blood pressure, and/or heart rate information from theknown blood glucose level, blood pressure, and/or heart rate monitor isprovided to the machine learning engine as control data.

In an embodiment, the machine learning engine 2760 is configured toprocess the raw data received from the sensor system 2710, e.g., as rawdata records, and the control data received from the control element2764 to learn a correlation, or correlations, that provides acceptablecorrespondence to a health parameter such as blood glucose levels. Forexample, the machine learning engine is configured to receive raw datafrom the sensor system, to derive data from the raw data such asstatistical data, and to compare the derived data (and likely at leastsome portion of the corresponding raw data) to the control data to learna correlation, or correlations, that provides acceptable correspondencebetween a determined value of a health parameter and a controlled, orknown value, of the health parameter. In an embodiment, the machinelearning engine is configured to derive statistics from the raw datasuch as a standard deviation, a moving average, and a moving mean. Forexample, the machine learning engine may derive the standard deviationof the amplitude and/or phase of the received RF energy and thencorrelate the derived statistic(s) and the raw data to the control datato find a correlation that provides an acceptable correspondence betweenthe raw data, the derived data, and the actual value of the healthparameter as provided in the control data. In an embodiment,correspondence between the raw data, the derived data, and the actualvalues of the health parameter in a control sample is expressed in termsof a correspondence threshold, which is indicative of, for example, thecorrespondence between values of a health parameter generated inresponse to the raw data, the derived data, and actual values of thehealth parameter in a control sample. For example, a correspondence isexpressed as a percentage of correspondence to the actual value of thecontrol sample such that a generated concentration value of a bloodglucose level of 135 mg/dL and a value of a control sample at 140 mg/dLhas a correspondence of 135/140=96.4%. In an embodiment, acorrespondence threshold can be set to accept only those correlationsthat produce correspondence that meets a desired correspondencethreshold. In an embodiment, a correspondence threshold of a generatedvalue to the value of a control sample of within ±10% of the controlsample is acceptable correspondence. In another embodiment, acorrespondence threshold of within ±10% of the control sample in 95% ofthe measurements is acceptable correspondence.

FIG. 28 is an example of a process flow diagram of a method forimplementing machine learning using, for example, the system describedabove with reference to FIG. 27 to select a correlation (e.g., a modelor algorithm) that provides acceptable correspondence between values ofa health parameter generated in response to the raw data, the deriveddata, and actual values of the health parameter in the control samples.At block 2802, raw data is obtained from the sensor system. At block2804, the raw data is correlated to known control data, such as knownblood glucose levels. At decision point 2806, it is determined whether acorrelation between the raw data and the control data is acceptable,e.g., whether the correspondence is within an acceptable threshold. Ifit is determined that there is an acceptable correspondence, then theprocess proceeds to block 2808, where the correlation (e.g., a model oralgorithm) is saved and then the initial learning process is ended. Ifat decision point 2806 it is determined that there is not an acceptablecorrespondence between the raw data and the control data (e.g., thecorrespondence is not within an acceptable threshold), then the processproceeds to block 2810. At block 2810, additional data is derived fromthe raw data. For example, the machine learning engine may derive astatistic or statistics from the raw data such as a standard deviation,a moving average, and a moving mean. For example, the machine learningengine may derive the standard deviation of the amplitude and/or phaseof the received RF energy. At decision point 2812, it is determinedwhether a correlation between the raw data, the derived data, and thecontrol data is acceptable (e.g., the correspondence is within anacceptable threshold). If it is determined that there is an acceptablecorrespondence between the raw data, the derived data, and the controldata, then the process proceeds to block 2814, where the correlation(e.g., a model or algorithm) is saved and then the initial learningprocess is ended. If at decision point 2812 it is determined that thereis not an acceptable correspondence between the raw data, the deriveddata, and the control data (e.g., the correspondence is not within anacceptable threshold), then the process returns to block 2810. At block2810, additional data is derived from the raw data and/or from thederived data. For example, a different statistic, or statistics, isderived from the raw data and/or from the previously derived data. In anembodiment, the exploration of correlations between the raw data, thederived data, and the control data is an iterative process thatconverges on a correlation, or correlations, which provides acceptablecorrespondence between the raw data, the derived data, and the controldata. In an embodiment, the machine learning process can be repeatedlyused to continue to search for correlations that may improve thecorrespondence between the raw data, the derived data, and the controldata to improve the accuracy of health parameter monitoring.

In an embodiment, the above-described process is used for algorithmselection and/or model building as is done in the field of machinelearning. In an embodiment, algorithm selection and/or model buildinginvolves supervised learning to recognize patterns in the data (e.g.,the raw data, the derived data, and/or the control data). In anembodiment, the algorithm selection process may involve utilizingregularized regression algorithms (e.g, Lasso Regression, RidgeRegression, Elastic-Net), decision tree algorithms, and/or treeensembles (random forests, boosted trees).

In an embodiment, acceptable correlations that are learned by themachine learning engine are trained by the machine learning engine toproduce a trained model, or trained models, that can be deployed in thefield to monitor a health parameter of a person. Referring back to FIG.27, a model that is trained by the machine learning engine 2760 is heldin the trained model database 2762. In an embodiment, the trained modeldatabase may store multiple models that have been found to provideacceptable correspondence between generated values of a health parameterand the actual values of the health parameter as provided in the controldata. Additionally, the trained model database 2762 may provide rules onhow to apply the model in deployed sensor systems. For example,different models may apply to different deployment conditions, e.g.,depending on the location of the RF front-end relative to a bloodvessel, environmental conditions, etc.

In an embodiment, operation of the system 2700 shown in FIG. 27 togenerate training data and to train a model using the training datainvolves providing a control sample in the control element 2764 and thenoperating the sensor system 2700 to implement stepped frequency scanningover a desired frequency range that is within, for example, the 2-6 GHzand/or 122-126 GHz frequency range. For example, control datacorresponding to the control sample 2766 is provided to the machinelearning engine 2760 and raw data generated from the sensor system 2710is provided to the machine learning engine. The machine learning enginegenerates training data by combining the control data with the steppedfrequency scanning data in a time synchronous manner. The machinelearning engine processes the training data to train a model, or models,which provides an acceptable correspondence between generated values ofa health parameter and the control data. The model, or models, is storedin the trained model database 2762, which can then be applied to asystem 2700 that is deployed in the field to monitor a health parameterof a person. In an embodiment, the sensor system is exposed to multipledifferent samples under multiple different operating conditions togenerate a rich set of training data.

In an embodiment, the goal of the training process is to produce atrained model that provides a high level of accuracy and reliability inmonitoring a health parameter in a person over a wide set of parameterranges and operational and/or environmental conditions. For example, thecorrespondence of a model during training can be expressed in terms of acorrespondence threshold, which is indicative of, for example, thecorrespondence between values of a health parameter generated inresponse to the raw data, the derived data, and actual values of thehealth parameter in a control sample. For example, a correspondence isexpressed as a percentage of correspondence to the actual value of thecontrol sample such that a generated concentration value of a bloodglucose level of 135 mg/dL and a value of a control sample at 140 mg/dLhas a correspondence of 135/140=96.4%. In an embodiment, acorrespondence threshold can be set for a trained model so that thetrained model produces correspondence that meets a desiredcorrespondence threshold. In an embodiment, a correspondence thresholdof a generated value to the value of a control sample of within ±10% ofthe control sample is acceptable correspondence for a trained model. Inanother embodiment, a correspondence threshold of within ±10% of thecontrol sample in 95% of the measurements is acceptable correspondencefor a trained model.

In an embodiment, the correspondence between the raw and/or derived dataand the control data may change in response to different factorsincluding, for example, over different blood glucose levels, differentmonitoring locations, different environmental conditions, etc. Thus, insome embodiments, the trained model database 2762 may include multipledifferent trained models that are applicable to certain conditions.Additionally, the trained model database may evolve over time as moreinformation is gathered and/or as different correlations are discovered.

As described above, the model training process utilizes raw data (e.g.,in the form of raw data records) as inputs into the machine learningengine. FIG. 29 is an example of a table of a raw data record (e.g.,digital data) generated during stepped frequency scanning that is usedto generate the training data. The raw data record includes time t1, aknown blood glucose level (e.g., a control sample with a knownconcentration of glucose in mg/dL, Z mg/dL) at the time t1, TX/RXfrequency at the time t1, RX1 amplitude/phase, RX2 amplitude/phase, RX3amplitude/phase, and RX4 amplitude/phase at the time t1. In the exampleof FIG. 29, the raw data record includes the glucose level of thecontrol sample at the same time the amplitude and phase of the RF energywas received by the sensor system, thus, the control data is combinedwith the stepped frequency scanning data in a time synchronous manner.In addition, the raw data records that are used to generate the trainingdata may include some or all of the parameters identified in FIGS. 23and 24. For example, the raw data records and the corresponding trainingdata may include other variable and/or fixed parameters that correspondto the stepped frequency scanning operation to provide a rich set ofparameters from which to generate the training data.

In a stepped frequency scanning operation, multiple raw data records aregenerated as the sensor system scans across a frequency range. FIGS.30A-30D are tables of at least portions of raw data records that aregenerated during a learning process that spans the time of t1-tn, wheren corresponds to the number (e.g., an integer of 2 or greater) of timeintervals, T, in the stepped frequency scanning. Each of the raw datarecords includes control data (e.g., known glucose level, Z mg/dL) thatis combined with stepped frequency scanning data in a time synchronousmanner.

With reference to FIG. 30A, at time, t1, the raw data record includesthe time, t1, a known blood glucose level (e.g., Z1 in mg/dL) at timet1, a TX/RX frequency (e.g., X GHz) at time t1, RX1 amplitude/phase attime t1 (ampl1−t1/ph1−t1), RX2 amplitude/phase at time t1(ampl2−t1/ph2−t1), RX3 amplitude/phase at time t1 (ampl3−t1/ph3−t1), andRX4 amplitude/phase at time t1 (ampl4−t1/ph4−t1). In the steppedfrequency scanning, at the next time, t2, the frequency is changed byone step size, e.g., incremented by Δf. In an embodiment, the steppedfrequency scanning operation generates 200 raw data records per second,e.g., a sample rate of 200 samples/second. With reference to FIG. 30B,at time, t2, the raw data record includes the time, t2, a known bloodglucose level (e.g., Z2 in mg/dL) at time t2, a TX/RX frequency (e.g.,X+Δf GHz) at time t2, RX1 amplitude/phase at time t2 (ampl1−t2/ph1−t2),RX2 amplitude/phase at time t2 (ampl2−t2/ph2−t2), RX3 amplitude/phase attime t2 (ampl3−t2/ph3−t2), and RX4 amplitude/phase at time t2(ampl4−t2/ph4−t2). With reference to FIG. 30C, at time, t3, the raw datarecord includes the time, t3, a known blood glucose level (e.g., Z3 inmg/dL) at time t3, a TX/RX frequency (e.g., X+2Δf GHz) at time t3, RX1amplitude/phase at time t3 (ampl1−t3/ph1−t3), RX2 amplitude/phase attime t3 (ampl2−t3/ph2−t3), RX3 amplitude/phase at time t3(ampl3−t3/ph3−t3), and RX4 amplitude/phase at time t3 (ampl4−t3/ph4−t3).With reference to FIG. 30D, at time, tn, the raw data record includesthe time, tn, a known blood glucose level (e.g., Zn in mg/dL) at timetn, a TX/RX frequency (e.g., X+(n−1)Δf GHz) at time tn, RX1amplitude/phase at time tn (ampl1−tn/ph1−tn), RX2 amplitude/phase attime tn (ampl2−tn/ph2−tn), RX3 amplitude/phase at time tn(ampl3−tn/ph3−tn), and RX4 amplitude/phase (ampl4−tn/ph4−tn) at time tn.

As illustrated above, raw data is collected on a per-antenna basis forthe amplitude and/or phase of the received RF energy. Raw data collectedon a per-antenna basis for amplitude and phase for the example of FIGS.30A-30D may include:

-   -   ampl1: ampl141, ampl1−t2, ampl1−t3, . . . , ampl1−tn;    -   ampl2: ampl2−t1, ampl2−t2, ampl2−t3, . . . , ampl2−tn;    -   ampl3: ampl3−t1, ampl3−t2, ampl3−t3, . . . , ampl3−tn;    -   ampl4; ampl4−t1, ampl4−t2, ampl4−t3, . . . , ampl4−tn;    -   ph1: ph1−t1, ph1−t2, ph1−t3, . . . , ph1−tn;    -   ph2: ph241, ph2−t2, ph2−t3, . . . , ph2−tn;    -   ph3: ph341, ph3−t2, ph3−t3, . . . , ph3−tn); and    -   ph4: ph441, ph4−t2, ph4−t3, . . . , ph4−tn).

In the example of FIGS. 30A-30D, the standard deviation may becalculated on a per-antenna basis for the amplitude and phase and is afunction of the following raw data elements:

-   -   σ(ampl1)=f(ampl1−t1+ampl1−t2+ampl1−t3+ . . . +ampl1−tn);    -   σ(ampl2)=f(ampl2−t1+ampl2−t2+ampl2−t3+ . . . +ampl2−tn);    -   σ(ampl3)=f(ampl3−t1+ampl3−t2+ampl3−t3+ . . . +ampl3−tn);    -   σ(ampl4)=f(ampl4−t1+ampl4−t2+ampl4−t3+ . . . +ampl4−tn);    -   σ(ph1)=f(ph1−t1+ph1−t2+ph1−t3+ . . . +ph1−tn);    -   σ(ph2)=f(ph2−t1+ph2−t2+ph2−t3+ . . . +ph2−tn);    -   σ(ph3)=f(ph3−t1+ph3−t2+ph3−t3+ . . . +ph3−tn); and    -   σ(ph4)=f(ph4−t1+ph4−t2+ph4−t3+ . . . +ph4−tn).

In an embodiment, data is derived on a per-antenna basis. In otherembodiments, data such as statistics can be derived from datacorresponding to different combinations of antennas.

Raw data records collected over time can be used as described above tolearn correlations (e.g., a model or algorithm) between the raw data,derived data, and the control data and to train a model. In anembodiment, a rich set of training data is collected and processed totrain a model that can provide accurate and reliable measurements of ahealth parameter such as blood glucose level, blood pressure, and/orheart rate. In an embodiment, the raw data including amplitude and phaseand the derived data including the standard deviation of the amplitudehas been found to correspond well to the health parameter of bloodglucose level.

Once correlations between the raw data, the derived data, and thecontrol data have been learned and a model has been trained, a sensorsystem can be deployed into the field for use in monitoring a healthparameter of a person, such as the blood glucose level. FIG. 31illustrates a system 3100 for health parameter monitoring that utilizesa sensor system similar to or the same as the sensor system describedabove. With reference to FIG. 31, the system includes a sensor system3110, a health parameter determination engine 3180, and a trained modeldatabase 3182.

In an embodiment, the sensor system 3110 is similar to or the same asthe sensor system described above. For example, the sensor system isconfigured to implement stepped frequency scanning in the 2-6 GHz and/or122-126 GHz frequency range using two transmit antennas and four receiveantennas. The sensor system generates and outputs raw data to the healthparameter determination engine 3180 that can be accumulated and used togenerate and output a value that corresponds to a health parameter.

A model (or models) that is trained by the machine learning engine asdescribed above is held in the trained model database 3182. In anembodiment, the trained model database may store multiple models thathave been trained to provide acceptable correspondence between agenerated value of a health parameter and the actual value of the healthparameter as provided in the control data. Additionally, the trainedmodel database may provide rules on how to apply trained models indeployed sensor systems. In an embodiment, the trained model databaseincludes memory for storing a trained model, or models. The memory mayinclude, for example, RAM, SRAM, and/or SSD.

In an embodiment, the health parameter determination engine 3180 isconfigured to generate an output that corresponds to a health parameterin response to the raw data received from the sensor system 3110,derived data, and using a trained model that is stored in the trainedmodel database 3182. For example, the health parameter determinationengine 3180 outputs a value that indicates a blood glucose level inmg/dL or some other indication of the blood glucose level. In otherembodiments, the health parameter determination engine may output avalue that is an indication of a person's heart rate (e.g., in beats perminute) and/or an indication of a person's blood pressure (e.g., inmillimeters of mercury, mmHg). In other embodiments, the “values” outputby the health parameter determination engine may correspond to a healthparameter in other ways. For example, the output value may indicate avalue such as “high,” “medium,” “low” with respect to a health parameter(e.g., a high blood glucose level, a medium blood glucose level, or alow blood glucose level relative to a blood glucose scale), the outputvalue may indicate a color, such as green, yellow, or red that indicatesa health parameter, or the output value, may indicate a range of values,such as 130-140 mg/dL blood glucose, 70-80 beats per minute, or 110-120mmHg blood pressure. In an embodiment, the health parameterdetermination engine recognizes patterns in the raw and/or derived dataand applies the recognized patterns to the trained model to generate anoutput that corresponds to a health parameter in a person. The healthparameter determination engine may be implemented by a digitalprocessor, such as a CPU or MCU, in conjunction with computer readableinstructions that executed by the digital processor.

In an embodiment, operation of the system 3100 shown in FIG. 31 involvesbringing a portion of a person's anatomy 3186 (such as a wrist, arm, orear area) into close proximity to the sensor system 3110 (or bringingthe sensor system into close proximity to the portion of a person'sanatomy) and operating the sensor system to implement stepped frequencyscanning over a frequency range, e.g., in the range of 122-126 GHz suchthat transmitted RF energy 3170 penetrates below the surface of theperson's skin. Raw data generated from implementing the steppedfrequency scanning is output from the sensor system and received at thehealth parameter determination engine 3180. The health parameterdetermination engine processes the raw data in conjunction with at leastone trained model from the trained model database 3182 to generate avalue that corresponds to a health parameter of the person, e.g., avalue that corresponds to the blood glucose level of the person. In anembodiment, the value that corresponds to the health parameter isoutput, for example, as a graphical indication of the blood glucoselevel. In an embodiment, the generated value may be stored in a healthparameter database for subsequent access.

In an embodiment, the system 3100 depicted in FIG. 31 is implemented ina device such as a smartwatch or smartphone. In other embodiments, someportion of the system (e.g., the RF front-end) is implemented in adevice, such as a dongle, a patch, a smartphone case, or some otherdevice and the health parameter determination engine and the trainedmodel correlations database is implemented in a nearby device such as asmartphone. For example, in one embodiment, the sensor system isembodied in a device that attaches near the ear of a person and raw datais communicated via a wireless connection to a device such as asmartphone that processes the raw data to generate a value thatcorresponds to the blood glucose level of the person.

FIG. 32 is a process flow diagram of a method for monitoring a healthparameter in a person. At block 3202, radio waves are transmitted belowthe skin surface of a person and across a range of stepped frequencies.At block 3204, radio waves are received on a two-dimensional array ofreceive antennas, the received radio waves including a reflected portionof the transmitted radio waves across the range of stepped frequencies.At block 3206, data that corresponds to the received radio waves isgenerated, wherein the data includes amplitude and phase data. At block3208, a value that is indicative of a health parameter in the person isdetermined in response to the amplitude and phase data.

FIG. 33 is a process flow diagram of another method for monitoring ahealth parameter in a person. At block 3302, radio waves are transmittedbelow the skin surface of a person and across a range of steppedfrequencies. At block 3304, radio waves are received on atwo-dimensional array of receive antennas, the received radio wavesincluding a reflected portion of the transmitted radio waves across therange of stepped frequencies. At block 3306, data that corresponds tothe received radio waves is generated, wherein the data includesamplitude and phase data. At block 3308, data is derived from at leastone of the amplitude and phase data. At block 3310, a value that isindicative of a health parameter in the person is determined in responseto the derived data.

FIG. 34 is a process flow diagram of a method for training a model foruse in monitoring a health parameter in a person. At block 3402, controldata that corresponds to a control element is received, wherein thecontrol data corresponds to a health parameter of a person. At block3404, stepped frequency scanning data that corresponds to radio wavesthat have reflected from the control element is received, wherein thestepped frequency scanning data includes frequency and correspondingamplitude and phase data over a range of frequencies. At block 3406,training data is generated by combining the control data with thestepped frequency scanning data in a time synchronous manner. At block3408, a model is trained using the training data to produce a trainedmodel, wherein the trained model correlates stepped frequency scanningdata to values that are indicative of a health parameter of a person.

As the heart pumps blood throughout the body, pulses of blood in a bloodvessel can be visualized as a pulse pressure waveform. FIG. 35 depictsan arterial pulse pressure waveform 3500 relative to a heartbeat 3502(represented as an electrocardiogram (ECG)). As shown in FIG. 35, theexample arterial pulse pressure waveform lags the heartbeat by about 180ms and each individual wave of the arterial pulse pressure waveform hasa cycle time of approximately 1 second. As is known in the field,features of each individual waveform of the arterial pulse pressurewaveform include a systolic peak, a dicrotic notch, and a diastolicpeak.

Blood pressure is often measured using a sphygmomanometer in which aninflatable cuff is placed around the upper arm of a person and inflateduntil a pulse is no longer detected at the wrist. The cuff is thendeflated and the return of a pulse is monitored. Cuff-based bloodpressure measurement techniques are well known but can be cumbersome andcan be uncomfortable due to the inflatable cuff. Some cuff-lesstechniques for measuring blood pressure are based on the Pulse TransitTime (PTT), which is the time it takes for a blood pulse originating atthe heart to reach a peripheral point in the body such as the upper arm,wrist, or finger. Although PTT-based approaches to blood pressuremonitoring can provide accurate blood pressure measurements, PTT-basedapproaches to blood pressure monitoring typically require two sensors,including, an ECG sensor near the heart and a photoplethysmogram (PPG)sensor at a peripheral point in the body.

Some approaches to cuff-less blood pressure monitoring that utilize onlya single PPG sensor have been explored, including techniques thatinvolve machine learning on features of the PPG. Although some progresshas been made, PPG sensors may not consistently produce pulse pressurewaveforms with enough resolution of the features of the arterial pulsepressure waveform to consistently provide accurate blood pressuremeasurements.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the blood pressure ofa person is measured by generating a pulse wave signal that correspondsto a pulse pressure waveform of the person and generating the pulsepressure waveform involves transmitting radio waves below the skinsurface of the person and across a range of radio frequencies, receivingradio waves on a two-dimensional array of receive antennas, the receivedradio waves including a reflected portion of the transmitted radio wavesacross the range of radio frequencies, generating data that correspondsto the received radio waves, and coherently combining the generated dataacross the two-dimensional array of receive antennas and across therange of radio frequencies to produce a pulse wave signal of the person.The pulse wave signal can then be used to determine a health parameterof the person such the blood pressure, including systolic and diastolic,of the person. In an embodiment, the radio waves are transmitted in aseries of stepped frequencies in which the transmitted frequency isincrementally stepped across a range of radio frequencies. The RF-basedtechnique described herein enables continuous blood pressure monitoringvia a wearable device, such as a wrist strap, that is lightweight andthat does not require cumbersome equipment such as an inflatable cuff.In addition to blood pressure, the pulse wave signal generated from theRF-based technique may also be used to determine values corresponding toother health parameters such as a blood glucose level of the person.

FIGS. 36A and 36B illustrate an RF-based sensor system 3610 thatincludes a transmit (TX) antenna 3644 and a two-dimensional array ofreceive (RX) antennas 3646 relative to two instances in time of anarterial pulse wave of an artery 3612 in, for example, the radial arteryat the wrist of a person. In the example of FIGS. 36A and 36B, thetwo-dimensional array of RX antennas is distributed over a skin surface3614 of a person, such as over the palm side of the wrist near theradial artery. Although the two RX antennas are shown as side-by-side inFIGS. 36A and 36B, it should be understood that other two-dimensionalarrangements of the RX antennas are possible, such as thetwo-dimensional array of RX antennas described with reference to FIGS.8A-8D and 25. Additionally, various arrangements of the TX and RXantennas are possible, including arrangements as described above.

In the instance captured in FIG. 36A, radio waves are transmitted (viathe TX antenna 3644) below the skin surface 3614 and towards aparticular point of a blood vessel, e.g., towards the radial artery 3612in the wrist. In the instance of FIG. 36A, the pulse of blood has notyet reached the point in the artery at which the radio waves areincident on the artery. As illustrated in FIG. 36A, some portion of thetransmitted radio waves 3616 is reflected by the artery as indicated byreflected radio waves 3618. For example, some portion of the radio wavesis reflected by the blood that is contained within the walls of theartery. Blood has a propensity to both reflect and absorb RF-energy thatis incident on the blood and the magnitude of RF energy absorbed andreflected is a function of the volume of blood that is subjected to theRF energy and is a function of the chemical composition of the blood,including the blood glucose level of the blood. That is, the blood inthe blood vessel absorbs some portion of the radio waves (RF energy) andreflects some portion of the radio waves (RF energy) depending on thevolume of blood in the blood vessel and depending on the chemicalcomposition of the blood in the blood vessel. For example, it has beenobserved that the absorption of radio waves (RF energy) increases as thevolume of blood increases. Some portion of the reflected radio waves (RFenergy) is incident on the RX antennas and received by the RF-basedsensor system.

In the instance captured in FIG. 36B, radio waves 3616 are transmitted(via the TX antenna 3644) to the same spot below the skin surface 3614and towards the blood vessel, e.g., towards the radial artery 3612.However, in the instance captured in FIG. 36B, the pulse of blood hastraveled within the blood vessel to the spot at which the transmittedradio waves are incident on the blood vessel. As illustrated in FIG.36B, some portion of the transmitted radio waves is reflected by theblood vessel (as indicated by reflected radio waves 3620) and detectedby the RX antennas 3646 of the two-dimensional array of RX antennas. Inthe example, because the volume of blood in the blood vessel is greaterat the location of the pulse, more RF energy is absorbed by the bloodand less RF energy is reflected back towards the two-dimensional arrayof RX antennas in the instance shown in FIG. 36B than in the instanceshown in FIG. 36A. Thus, using an RF-based sensor system 3610 asdescribed herein, an arterial pulse pressure waveform can be detectedand a pulse pressure waveform signal, referred to herein simply as apulse wave signal, can be generated by the RF-based sensor system. Inparticular, a pulse wave signal that corresponds to the arterial pulsepressure waveform 3500 as shown in FIG. 35 can be generated by theRF-based sensor system in response to blood pulses that travel through ablood vessel (e.g., an artery such as the radial artery of a person).

FIG. 37 depicts an embodiment of an RF-based sensor system 3710, similarto the RF-based sensor system described above, which utilizes radiofrequency scanning (e.g., stepped frequency scanning) across a range ofradio frequencies and a two-dimensional array of RX antennas to generatea pulse wave signal that corresponds to a pulse pressure waveform. TheRF-based sensor system is configured to coherently combine signalsacross the two-dimensional array of RX antennas and across the range ofradio frequencies to generate the pulse wave signal. The pulse wavesignal can be used to determine a value that is indicative of a healthparameter such as blood pressure, blood glucose level, and/or heartrate. As is described in more detail below, techniques for monitoring ahealth parameter based on the pulse wave signal may involve mathematicalmodeling, feature extraction, machine learning training, and/or machinelearning inference.

As depicted in FIG. 37, the RF-based sensor system 3710 includes an RFfront-end 3748 and a digital back-end 3750. The RF front-end includes afrequency synthesizer 3758, a transmit component 3754, TX antennas 3744,RX antennas 3746, a receive component 3756, and an analog processingcomponent 3760. The components of the RF front-end are, for example,described above with reference to FIGS. 5-7. In examples describedherein, the frequency synthesizer generates frequencies that step acrossa range of frequencies at a fixed step size. In other embodiments, thefrequency synthesizer may generate radio waves using other approachessuch as impulse, chirped, ramped, and continuous wave.

The digital back-end 3750 includes a digital baseband system 3770 and aCPU 3752. The digital baseband system includes an analog-to-digitalconverter (ADC) 3762, a pulse wave signal processor 3778, a steppedfrequency controller 3782, and a pulse wave post-processor 3783(including an optional pulse wave modeling module 3785 and a featureextractor 3784). The CPU includes a health parameter determinationengine 3780 and a trained model database 3782.

Although the RF-based sensor system 3710 is shown in a single drawing inFIG. 37, it should be understood that components of the RF-based sensorsystem may be physically separated from each other. For example, the RFfront-end 3748 and digital baseband system 3770 may be integrated into awearable device such as a wrist strap, while the CPU 3752 is located ona separate device that has greater processing capabilities, such as asmartwatch, a smartphone, a desktop/laptop computer, and/or a cloudcomputing system. The digital baseband system may include an interface(not shown), such as a low power wireless interface (e.g., Bluetooth)that enables data corresponding to the pulse wave signal and/or featuresextracted from the pulse wave signal to be communicated to the CPU.Other distributions of the components of the RF-based sensor system arealso possible. In one embodiment, the RF front-end and digital basebandsystem are integrated into a lightweight wearable wrist strap and thehealth parameter determination engine is implemented through a CPU (orother processor) on a smartphone or smartwatch. In another embodiment,the entire RF-based sensor system is integrated into a single wearabledevice, such as a smartwatch.

Coherent Combining

As indicated above, the technique for producing a pulse wave signalinvolves coherently combining data that corresponds to received radiowaves across a two-dimensional array of receive antennas and across arange of radio frequencies (e.g., across a range of steppedfrequencies). Coherently combining data that corresponds to receivedradio waves across a two-dimensional array of receive antennas andacross a range of radio frequencies is described in more detail belowwith reference to FIGS. 38-43.

As shown in the embodiment of FIG. 37, the RF front-end 3748 includes anarray of RX antennas 3746 that includes four RX antennas. Given four RXantennas, radio waves/RF energy can be simultaneously received on eachof the four RX antennas. FIG. 38 depicts pulse wave signals 3804 thatcorrespond to RF energy received on each of the four RX antennas of theRF-based sensor system in the case in which the RF-based sensor systemis aligned with a blood vessel in an extremity of a person such asaligned with the radial artery at the wrist of a person. In the exampleof FIG. 38, each of the pulse wave signals is ideal, or nearly ideal, inthat the pulse wave signals closely correspond to a typical arterialpulse pressure waveform at the specific measured location in the artery.FIG. 38 also indicates frame numbers along the x-axis (e.g., time axis)that correspond to frames of data that are collected by the RF-basedsensor system to produce the pulse wave signal. As is described in moredetail below, a scan refers to a set of frequencies across a range offrequencies that is repeatedly scanned across to implement radiofrequency scanning and a frame, or frame of data, refers to the datathat is generated from a single scan across the range of frequencies.For example, with regard to an implementation that utilizes steppedfrequency scanning, a stepped frequency scan may include 64 frequencysteps (e.g., at 62.5 MHz/step) across a frequency range of 2-6 GHz inwhich radio waves/RF energy is received on four different antennas andthe corresponding frame of data is the data generated from the radiowaves/RF energy received on the four antennas at the 64 frequency stepsacross the frequency range of 2-6 GHz. The frame numbers shown in FIG.38 are at intervals of 94 frames (or scans), which corresponds toapproximately 150 frames per pulse wave and/or 150 frames per second ifan entire pulse wave is assumed to be approximately one second. Thus, inthe example of FIG. 38, approximately 150 frames of data (correspondingto 150 scans across the 2-6 GHz frequency range) are generated for eachindividual wave of the pulse wave signal.

As described above, the four pulse wave signals 3804 shown in FIG. 38are ideal, or nearly ideal, representations of the actual arterial pulsepressure waveform in that the pulse wave signals closely correspond to atypical arterial pulse pressure waveform at the specific measuredlocation in the blood vessel (e.g., in the radial artery). However, whenusing a wearable health monitoring sensor, such as the RF-based sensorsystem described herein, it is likely that the signals detected on eachantenna will not always be ideal and may vary over time and may varyfrom antenna to antenna. Such variations may be due to alignment and/ormovement of the RF-based sensor system relative to the blood vessel, ordue to other conditions/variables. FIG. 39 depicts an example of pulsewave signals 3906 that correspond to RF energy received on each of thefour RX antennas under actual conditions (e.g., when worn by a person)in which the signals detected on each antenna are not idealrepresentations of the actual arterial pulse pressure waveform and varyfrom antenna to antenna and over time. With reference to FIG. 39, thepulse wave signal corresponding to RF energy detected on antenna 1starts out strong, e.g., matching or nearly matching the actual arterialpulse pressure waveform, but fades out over time, the pulse wave signalcorresponding to RF energy detected on antenna 2 starts out weak andimproves somewhat over the depicted time interval, the pulse wave signalcorresponding to RF energy detected on antenna 3 starts out weak butmarkedly improves about halfway through the depicted time interval, andthe pulse wave signal corresponding to RF energy detected on antenna 4starts out very strong and then weakens somewhat in the second half ofthe depicted time interval. FIG. 39 clearly illustrates that the qualityof the corresponding pulse wave signals (e.g., with regard to howclosely the pulse wave signals match the corresponding actual arterialpulse pressure waveform) can vary over time and can vary from antenna toantenna.

In addition to the pulse wave signal varying from antenna to antenna andover time, the pulse wave signal that is generated from an antenna ofthe RF-based sensor system may vary from frequency to frequency on thesame receive antenna as the frequency is scanned across the range ofradio frequencies. For example, the quality of the received signals mayvary over a range of stepped frequencies, e.g., from frequency, f₁, tofrequency, f₁+(64−1)*Δf, where 64 equals the number of steps and Δfequals the step size. That is, the quality of the pulse wave signalsthat are detected at frequency f₁, frequency f₁+Δf, frequency f₁+2*Δf,and frequency f₁+(64−1)*Δf, may vary. Although an example of 64frequencies is described, other numbers of frequencies per scan arepossible.

As described above with reference to FIGS. 38 and 39, the quality of thepulse wave signal, 3804 and 3806, detected on each RX antenna can varyover time from antenna to antenna and/or from frequency to frequency. Inan embodiment of the invention, the data generated from each of theantennas over the range of radio frequencies is coherently combined inorder to produce a high-quality pulse wave signal that can be used todetermine a health parameter such as blood pressure, blood glucoselevel, and/or heart rate. The concept of coherently combining a diverseset of data that is generated by the RF-based sensor system isillustrated at a high level with reference to FIG. 40. In particular,FIG. 40 illustrates that the data generated from each of the four RXantennas (represented as antenna-specific pulse wave signals 4006) iscombined in a pulse wave signal processor 4078 to produce a single pulsewave signal. Although not explicitly illustrated in FIG. 40, the datagenerated from the same RX antenna at each different frequency across arange of radio frequencies is also coherently combined in the pulse wavesignal processor to produce the pulse wave signal.

As described herein, an RF-based sensor system generates a set ofdigital data that has spatial diversity, frequency diversity, andtemporal diversity. Such diversity of digital data generated by theRF-based sensor system is depicted in FIG. 41. In particular, FIG. 41depicts frames of digital data generated by the RF-based sensor systemover four RX antennas, which are configured in a two-dimensional arrayof RX antennas to provide spatial diversity, and over a range of radiofrequencies, e.g., stepped frequencies from f₁-f₆₄, where f₁ equals f₁,f₂=f₁+Δf, f₃=f₁+2*Δf, f₄=f₁+3*Δf, . . . f₆₄=f₁+(64−1)*Δf, where Δf isthe step size, to provide frequency diversity, and over a period oftime, e.g., from t₁-t₂₅₆, where each interval is of time, T (e.g., seeFIG. 16A), to provide temporal diversity.

As depicted in FIG. 41, data is generated at time, t₁, in response toreceiving RF energy at frequency f₁, on each of antennas 1-4 (A1, A2,A3, and A4). The data generated at time, t₁, in response to receiving RFenergy at frequency, f₁, on each of antennas A1-A4 is represented by an“X” at the intersection of the time column for time, t₁, and thefrequency-specific rows for antennas 1-4, A1F1, A2F1, A3F1, and A4F1,respectively. In an embodiment, each “X” represents digital data, whichmay include an amplitude component, e.g., in terms of voltage magnitude,and a phase component e.g., in terms of a delay of the received signal.Moving on in time to time, t₂, the frequency of the RF-based sensorsystem steps to frequency, f₂, where, f₂=f1+Δf, and the data generatedat time, t₂, in response to receiving RF energy at frequency, f₂, oneach of antennas A1-A4 is represented by an “X” at the intersection ofthe time column for time, t₂, and the frequency-specific rows forantennas 1-4, A1F2, A2F2, A3F2, and A4F2, respectively. The process ofgenerating data over the range of 64 different stepped frequenciescontinues for 64 time intervals, e.g., until the time, t₆₄. Once theRF-based sensor system has stepped through the entire range of 64stepped frequencies, f₁-f₆₄, the frequency returns back to frequency,f₁, and the stepped frequency scanning process continues at time, t₆₅.In other embodiments, frames of data may be generated in response toradio waves transmitted using an approach other than a stepped frequencyradar approach, such as impulse radar, chirped radar, ramped radar, orcontinuous wave radar.

In the example described herein, a frame, or frame of data, refers tothe data generated via antennas A1-A4 from a scan that is conductedacross times, t₁-t₆₄, over the range of radio frequencies, e.g., steppedfrequencies, f₁-f₆₄. FIG. 41 depicts four frames of data that correspondto four scans across 64 frequency steps collected via the four receiveantennas. In an embodiment, the RF-based sensor system may implement,for example, from 50-300 scans per second, or said another way, theRF-based sensor system may generate, for example, from 50-300 frames ofdata per second. Although FIG. 41 depicts stepped frequency scanningover 64 frequency steps per scan, it should be understood that 64frequency steps over the 2-6 GHz frequency range is only an example andother radar-based approaches are possible. For example, differentnumbers of frequency steps, e.g., N=16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024,over the same frequency range are possible. Additionally, otherfrequency ranges are possible in terms of, for example, the width of therange (e.g., 4 GHz) and/or the absolute frequencies of the frequencyranges (e.g., 2-6 GHz, 22-26 GHz, 58-62 GHz, 122-126 GHz).

In one embodiment that utilizes stepped frequencies, the time intervalof each frequency step, T, is fixed such that an increase in the numberof frequency steps/frequencies, translates to an increase in the time tocomplete one scan across the same frequency range. For example, whenN=64, the time for one scan is 64*T, but when N=128, the time for onescan is 128*T. In another embodiment, the time interval of a frequencystep, T, can be changed. For example, the time interval of each step, T,can be shortened so that more steps can be completed in a given timeperiod or the time interval of each step, T, can be lengthened so thatfewer steps are completed in the same time. Thus, the number offrequency steps per frame can be adjusted to provide more or fewerfrequency steps in a fixed frame time or fixed interval, T, so that adifferent number of steps per frame changes the total time of the frame.In sum, various parameters of the radio frequency scanning can be setand/or changed on an implementation-specific basis. Thus, in addition tospatial, frequency, and temporal diversity, the RF-based sensor systemexhibits spectral agility that further enables generation of a highquality pulse wave signal that corresponds well to the actual arterialpulse pressure waveform that is being monitored.

As shown in FIG. 41, an RF-based sensor system as described hereingenerates a diverse set of data, including spatial diversity, frequencydiversity, and temporal diversity. In an embodiment, the diverse set ofdata is coherently combined in a manner that produces a high qualitypulse wave signal. FIG. 42 is a functional block diagram of a pulse wavesignal processor 4278 (also referred to as a coherent combiner) that isconfigured to coherently combine the diverse set of data depicted inFIG. 41. In an embodiment, the pulse wave signal processor is a digitalsignal processor (DSP) that includes a weight application module 4282, asummer 4284, a property map fit module 4286, and a weight adaptationmodule 4288. As illustrated in FIG. 42, the pulse wave signal processorreceives data on a per-antenna and per-frequency basis as described withreference to FIG. 41 and although not illustrated in FIG. 42, the datais also received in a time sequential order over a period of time asdescribed with reference to FIG. 41. The antenna-specific andfrequency-specific data received at each time interval is subjected tothe weight application module, which applies weights to the data on aper-antenna and per-frequency basis. The adjustable weighting of theantenna-specific and frequency-specific data is represented byadjustable antenna-specific and frequency-specific weighting elements.In FIG. 42, only a few of the antenna-specific and frequency-specificweighing elements are labeled with corresponding antenna and frequencyidentifiers to preserve clarity in the figure. In an embodiment, theweights applied by the weighting elements are complex values thatrepresent a gain adjustment and a phase adjustment for the correspondingdata element.

Once the antenna-specific and frequency-specific weights have beenapplied to the data by the weight application module 4282, the summer4284 combines the data into a pulse wave signal, Y. In an example, thepulse wave signal, Y, is presented as a set of scans, e.g., 150 scans,and the summer sums detected signals over four RX antennas, 64 steppedfrequencies, and over 150 scans. The application of weights and thesumming of data over a set of 150 scans is further illustrated in FIG.43. In particular, FIG. 43 illustrates that the vector, X, includes 150frames of data collected over four RX antennas (A1-A4) and over 64frequencies, e.g., 64 frequency steps (F1-F64). In the example, X is amatrix of 256×150 signal values, where the 256 signal values per framecorrespond to 4 antennas×64 frequencies. A weight vector, W, is a 256×1matrix of antenna-specific and frequency-specific weights that areapplied to the matrix, X, on a per-antenna and per-frequency basis andthe pulse wave signal, Y, is a 1×150 matrix of time sequential valuesgenerated by applying the weights, W, to the data, X. The resultingdata, Y, constitutes a portion of a pulse wave signal (e.g., anapproximately 1 second portion of the pulse wave signal). It should beunderstood that the sizes of the matrices are examples based on theexample of an RF-based sensor system having four RX antennas that scansover 64 stepped frequencies at approximately 150 scans/second. Othersizes of the matrices would correspond to variations in the parametersof the stepped frequency scanning. Additionally, other approaches toapplying weights and summing data from radio frequency scanning arepossible.

In an embodiment, coherently combining the data generated from steppedfrequency scanning involves comparing the pulse wave signal to a signalmodel that reflects the periodic, or quasi-periodic, nature of thearterial pulse pressure waveform and then adjusting the weights, W, thatare applied to the antenna-specific and frequency-specific data tobetter match the produced pulse wave signal, Y, to the signal model. Inan embodiment, the signal model is a periodic signal model in the formof a mathematical model that is modeled as a trigonometric polynomialthat corresponds to a pulse pressure waveform. For example, themathematical model may be a fourth order trigonometric polynomial thatis modulated to fit the periodic, or quasi-periodic, nature of thearterial pulse pressure waveform over a fixed block of time. Forexample, the mathematical model may be expressed as:

${p(t)} = {\sum\limits_{q = 0}^{Q}\left( {{u_{q}{\cos\left( {2\pi\;{qtF}} \right)}} + {v_{q}{\sin\left( {2\pi\;{qtF}} \right)}}} \right)}$

where F=heart rate, t=time in seconds, Q=the number of waveforms orterms in the Fourier series, u_(q)=Fourier coefficient of the shapefunction, and v_(q)=Fourier coefficient of the shape function.

In another embodiment, the signal model may also be a periodic signalmodel, of the arterial pulse pressure waveform that is based onsomething other than a trigonometric polynomial, such as for example,wavelets.

Referring back to FIG. 42, in an embodiment, the property map fit module4286 stores multiple different signal models, e.g., periodic signalmodels modeled as trigonometric polynomials, which are preprogrammedand/or learned over time. For example, the multiple different signalmodels may represent different variations of the arterial pulse pressurewaveform that are expected to be encountered during health monitoringoperations. In operation, the property map fit module receives the pulsewave signal, Y, and compares the received pulse wave signal to thevarious stored mathematical models to select a signal model for use bythe weight adaptation module. In an embodiment, the property fit modulecompares the received pulse wave signal, Y, to the various stored signalmodels to find a best match between the pulse wave signal and a signalmodel. For example, the property fit module may use a minimum meansquared error algorithm to find a best match between the pulse wavesignal and a signal mode. The selected (e.g., best match) model, S, isthen provided as an output to the weight adaptation module. FIG. 42illustrates the property map fit module receiving the pulse wave signal,Y, and providing a signal model, S, to the weight adaptation module4288. In an embodiment, the weight adaptation module uses the selectedmodel to adapt the antenna-specific and frequency-specific weights todrive the pulse wave signal, Y, to better match the selected (e.g., bestmatch) signal model. In an embodiment, the weight adaptation module 4282is configured to implement a Wiener filter (also referred to as a Wienerfilter solution) or other process such as a maximum likelihood process(e.g., Kalman filtering) to compare the antenna-specific andfrequency-specific data (e.g., A1F1, . . . A1F64, A2F1, . . . A2F64,A3F1, . . . A3F64, A4F1, . . . A4F64,) to the signal model, S, togenerate weights and/or to adjust/adapt the current weights. In anembodiment, the antenna-specific and frequency-specific weights areadapted to adjust the phase component of the signals to align theperiodicity of the antenna-specific and frequency-specific signals withthe periodicity of the signal model. In an embodiment, theantenna-specific and frequency-specific weights are adapted to adjustthe phase component of the signals to align the periodicity of the pulsewave signals across the antennas and across the frequencies. In anembodiment, the weights, W, are adapted to improve and/or maximize thepulse wave signal, to improve and/or maximize the SNR, to improve and/ormaximize interference, and/or to improve a quality parameter of thepulse wave signal.

The adapted weights that are generated by the weight adaptation model4288 are fed to the weight application module 4282 for application tothe antenna-specific and frequency-specific data. In an embodiment, theadapted weights may be provided as changes/adjustments to the currentweights. In other embodiments, the adapted weights may be provided as aset of new weights. Other ways to provide the weights are also possible.In an embodiment in which there are four RX antennas and 64 steppedfrequencies per scan, the weights are provided as a 256×1 vector, suchthat there is an antenna-specific and frequency-specific weight for eachof the 256 (4×64) different RX antenna and radio frequency combinations.In an embodiment, the weights are complex values, which represent a gainand phase adjustment of the received antenna-specific andfrequency-specific signals and which are used to emphasize certainsignals, e.g., add gain to desired signals, and/or to align periodicityof the signals. In an embodiment, the process of adapting the weights isimplemented on a periodic basis, such as once every 2-10 seconds.Although 2-10 seconds is given an example, other time periods betweenweight updates are possible. Although an example of coherently combiningthe data generated from the RF-based sensor system is described, othertechniques for coherently combining data generated from an RF-basedsensor system are possible.

Mathematical Modeling

As described above, the pulse wave signal generated by the RF-basedsensor system may be modeled as a mathematical model, such as atrigonometric polynomial. For example, the pulse wave signal, Y, can beprovided as a mathematical model, e.g., a 4^(th) order trigonometricpolynomial. FIG. 44 graphically illustrates the pulse wave signals 4406corresponding to the four RX antennas (antennas A1-A4) being modeled asa trigonometric polynomial mathematical model 4408 of the pulse wavesignal. In an embodiment, modeling the pulse wave signal as atrigonometric polynomial involves using a Fourier analysis to implementpolynomial approximation. The mathematical modeling can be implementedwithin the digital baseband system (e.g., within the pulse wave signalprocessor) and the mathematical model can be provided to the propertymap fit module for matching to a model signal. In other embodiments,mathematical modeling of the pulse wave signal can be implemented in adifferent processor, such as the pulse wave modeling module or the CPU(see FIG. 37).

It has been found that a mathematical model in the form of atrigonometric polynomial can smooth volatility in the pulse wave signal,Y, while still carrying key features of a pulse pressure waveform,including, for example the systolic peak, the dicrotic notch, and thediastolic peak of an arterial pulse pressure waveform. Importantly, themathematical model can carry precise information on the dicrotic notchand diastolic peak, which are often times not discernible in PPGs. Thetrigonometric polynomial model shown in FIG. 44 clearly shows featuresof the arterial pulse pressure waveform, including the systolic peak4412, the dicrotic notch 4414, and the diastolic peak 4416. It has beenfound that the dicrotic notch and diastolic peak can be used to extractfeatures that are strong indicators of blood pressure, which can enableimproved blood pressure inference by the health parameter determinationengine (see FIG. 37). Other features may be extracted from themathematical model of the pulse wave signal and used to determinephysiological and/or health parameters of a person. In an embodiment,features extracted from a mathematical model of the pulse wave signalmay include a Fourier coefficient. In an embodiment, the mathematicalmodel generated from the pulse wave signal also carries lower frequencyinformation, e.g., information corresponding to a change in reflectivitydue to changes in blood glucose level.

Blood Glucose from Pulse Wave Signal

As described above, the pulse wave signal that is produced by theRF-based sensor system (or a mathematical model of the signal) can beused to determine a value that is indicative of a health parameter suchas a blood pressure, a blood glucose level, heart rate, and/or heartrate variability (HRV). The above described RF-based sensor system hasshown to be very sensitive to changes in the reflectivity of blood thatcirculates through a blood vessel of a person. Because of the advancedsensitivity of the RF-based sensor system, the RF-based sensor system isable to generate digital data, e.g., in the form of a pulse wave signal,which simultaneously captures changes in reflectivity of the blood in ablood vessel that correspond to changes in reflectivity that are afunction of the volume of blood in the blood vessel at the point ofmeasurement (where the volume of blood is a function of blood pressure)as well as changes in reflectivity of the blood in the blood vessel thatare a function of the chemical makeup (e.g., the concentration of bloodglucose) of the blood at the point of measurement. In essence, thedigital data corresponding to the pulse wave signal, which is generatedby the RF-based sensor system, carries information that can be used todetermine values that correspond to blood pressure and information thatcan be used to determine values that correspond to another healthparameter such as blood glucose level. Thus, the RF-based sensor systemenables both continuous blood pressure monitoring and continuous bloodglucose monitoring with a single RF-based sensor system and from thesame data set.

Although the digital data corresponding to the pulse wave signalincludes data that represents changes in reflectivity of blood in ablood vessel due to changes in blood volume as well as changes inreflectivity of the blood in the blood vessel due to changes in thechemical makeup of the blood (e.g., the concentration of glucose in theblood), the distinction between the two changes may not be apparentuntil the data is examined in view of the relative time periods overwhich such changes in reflectivity are observed. The relative timeperiods over which such changes in reflectivity are observed are nowdescribed with reference to FIGS. 45A-45C. FIG. 45A depicts a pulse wavesignal 4502 of a person over 60 seconds with the typical pulse wavesignal having a period of 1 second. As shown in FIG. 45A, over a timewindow of 60 seconds, the amplitude (e.g., y-axis values) of the pulsewave signal generated by the RF-based sensor system typically does notvary much from waveform to waveform.

In contrast to the time period of FIG. 45A, FIG. 45B depicts an examplegraph of the blood glucose level (in milligrams per deciliter, mg/dL)4520 of the person over the course of a 24-hour period. As shown in FIG.45B, the blood glucose level typically spikes after meals are consumed(e.g., breakfast, lunch, and dinner) and then slowly returns to a baselevel over time. Note that the pulse wave signal shown in FIG. 45Arepeats every second while the blood glucose level shown in FIG. 45Bchanges over minutes and hours.

Although changes in the amplitude (e.g., the y-axis) of the pulse wavesignal 4502 shown in FIG. 45A may not be distinguishable from pulse waveto pulse wave over a few seconds, changes in the amplitude of the pulsewave signal that occur over longer periods of time (e.g., greater than1-5 minutes) may be more easily identified. It has been realized thatchanges in the pulse wave signal over extended periods of timecorrespond to changes in the reflectivity of blood in a blood vesselthat are caused by changes in the blood glucose level in the blood. FIG.45C depicts short time segments (e.g., 3 seconds) of pulse wave signals4502 that are generated by the RF-based sensor system for the person atapproximately 2 hours apart in time, e.g., from approximately 2 PM to 4PM, as shown in FIG. 45B. As illustrated by the gaps 4522 in FIG. 45C,the amplitudes of the two segments of the pulse wave signals havenoticeably shifted over the time period from 2 PM to 4 PM. In theexamples of FIG. 45C, the amplitudes have shifted downwards (relative tothe y-axis) from 2 PM to 4 PM. Such shifts in the amplitude of the pulsewave signal over time may be identified as described below and used tomonitor changes in the blood glucose level of the person. Additionally,although FIG. 45C illustrates the change in reflectivity of the blood asa change in amplitude, the change in reflectively of the blood may becarried in other aspects of the pulse wave signal, Y, that is output bythe RF-based sensor system. For example, the change in reflectively maybe reflected in a phase component of the pulse wave signal, Y, insteadof, or in addition to, the amplitude component of the pulse wave signal.Other features and/or derivatives of the signal detected by the RF-basedsensor system may indicate a change in the reflectivity of the blood inthe blood vessel. Although an example time period between segments of 2hours is described, other time periods, including shorter time periods,on the order of minutes can be used to identify changes in thereflectivity of the blood due to changes in the blood chemistry, e.g.,due to changes in the blood glucose level.

Single Sensor: Blood Pressure+Blood Glucose Monitoring

Given that the digital data of the pulse wave signal that is generatedby the RF-based sensor system includes data representing changes inreflectivity caused by changes in blood volume and changes inreflectivity caused by changes in blood chemistry (e.g., changes in theblood glucose level), the same signal generated from a single RF-basedsensor system can be used to monitor blood pressure and to monitoranother health parameter such as blood glucose level. As described, thepulse wave signal that is produced by the RF-based sensor system can beused to determine values that are indicative of blood pressure, e.g.,systolic and diastolic blood pressure, as well as values that areindicative of blood glucose level. FIG. 46 is a functional block diagramof a system 4600 (e.g., part of the digital back-end) that can be usedto determine a blood pressure and a blood glucose level from a pulsewave signal that is produced by an RF-based sensor system such as theRF-based sensor system described herein. The system includes a bloodpressure monitoring module 4630 and a blood glucose monitoring module4640.

As shown in FIG. 46, the blood pressure monitoring module 4630 includesa bandpass filter 4632, a feature extractor 4634, and a blood pressuremachine learning (ML) engine 4636. In an embodiment, the bandpass filteris configured to pass frequencies in the range of approximately 0.1-10Hz (e.g., ±10%) and the feature extractor is configured to extractfeatures from the filtered pulse wave signal, or from a mathematicalmodel of the pulse wave signal. In an embodiment, the bandpass filter isimplemented to pass components of the pulse wave signal that include thefrequency of the pulse wave signal, e.g., 1 cycle per second (Hz) whileblocking components of the pulse wave signal that are outside of thepass band. Features extracted from the pulse wave signal may includetiming based features, magnitude based features, and/or area basedfeatures. In an embodiment, the blood pressure monitoring module doesnot include a bandpass filter and the pulse wave signal is fed directlyto the feature extractor.

FIG. 47 depicts an example of a pulse wave signal 4702 that is generatedby an RF-based sensor system with particular features identified alongwith a table of features that may be extracted from the pulse wavesignal. As provided in the table, examples of features that may beextracted from the pulse wave signal include:

Timing Based Features

-   -   dTwave=endTime−startTime;    -   dTstart2peak=peakTime−startTime;    -   dTpeak2end=endTime−peakTime;    -   dTstart2notch=notchTime−startTime;    -   dTnotch2end=endTime−notchTime;    -   dTpeak2notch=notchTime−peakTime;    -   dTpeak2diPeak=diPeakTime−peakTime;

Magnitude Based Features

-   -   magNotch2Peak=peakABP−notchABP;    -   reflexlndex=diPeakABP/peakABP;    -   StiffnessIndex=height/dTpeak2diPeak², where height=peak−valley;

Area Based Features

-   -   AUCsys=area under curve of systolic part;    -   AUCdias=area under curve of diastolic part;    -   AUCtot=area under curve for wave.

where, startTime=the start of a pulse wave, endTime=the end of a pulsewave, peakTime=the time of the systolic peak, notchTime=the time of thedicrotic notch, diPeakTime=the time of the diastolic peak, peakABP=themagnitude of the systolic peak, notchABP=the magnitude of the dicroticnotch, diPeakABP=the magnitude of the diastolic peak, height=thepeakABP−the lowest ABP.

In the example described with reference to FIG. 47, features areextracted from the pulse wave signal itself. In another embodiment,features are extracted from a mathematical model of the pulse wavesignal. For example, in the case in which a mathematical model is usedto represent the pulse wave signal, features of the mathematical modelmay be extracted for use by the blood pressure ML engine. Features ofthe mathematical model may be, for example, features similar to theabove-identified timing/magnitude/area based features and/or features ofthe mathematical model such as Fourier coefficients of a trigonometricpolynomial model of the pulse wave signal. Although some examples offeatures related to the pulse wave signal are described, other featuresrelated to the pulse wave signal are possible, including features thatmay be derived from other features.

Referring back to FIG. 46, whether the features are extracted from thepulse wave signal itself or from a mathematical model of the pulse wavesignal, the features are provided to the blood pressure ML engine 4636for a blood pressure inference operation. The blood pressure ML engineapplies the extracted features to a trained model and provides an outputthat corresponds to a blood pressure level of the person. In anembodiment, the blood pressure ML engine is an embodiment of the healthparameter determination engine (FIG. 37, 3780) that executes a trainedmodel (also referred to as an estimation algorithm), which may utilize,for example, K nearest neighbors, regression methods, support vectormachines, and/or decision trees, to make inferences about blood pressurein response to the extracted features. Although the blood pressuremonitoring module includes a bandpass filter, bandpass filtering may notbe implemented in some embodiments.

With reference to FIG. 46, when blood glucose monitoring is desired, thepulse wave signal is processed by the blood glucose monitoring module4640, which includes a low pass filter 4642, a feature extractor 4644,and a blood glucose ML engine 4640. As described above, it has beenrealized that the data generated by the RF-based sensor system thatcorresponds to the pulse wave signal also includes data that correspondsto the blood glucose level. Given that a signal that corresponds to theblood glucose level is carried in the pulse wave signal, processing ofthe pulse wave signal can be implemented to extract or isolate thesignal that corresponds to the blood glucose level. In particular, thepulse wave signal has a high frequency relative to changes in the signalthat correspond to the blood glucose level. For example, as describedabove with reference to FIGS. 45A-45C, the pulse wave signal has aperiodicity of approximately 1 second while the glucose signal changeson the order of minutes or hours. Thus, in an embodiment, a glucosesignal is extracted from the pulse wave signal by passing the pulse wavesignal through a lowpass filter, which is configured to remove higherfrequency signals and pass lower frequency signals. For example, thepulse wave signal may be filtered with a lowpass filter that isconfigured to pass frequencies of less than about 0.5 Hz (e.g., towithin ±10%). In an embodiment, filtering the pulse wave signal to passfrequencies less than about 0.5 Hz helps to isolate the data thatcorresponds to changes in reflectivity of the blood in the vessel due tochanges in the blood chemistry from the data that corresponds to changesin reflectivity of the blood in the vessel due to changes in the volumeof blood in the vessel.

The feature extractor 4644 is configured to extract features from thefiltered signal, or from a mathematical model of the filtered signal.Whether the features are extracted from the filtered signal itself, orfrom a mathematical model of the filtered signal, the features areprovided to the blood glucose ML engine 4640 for a blood glucoseinference operation. The blood glucose ML engine applies the extractedfeatures to a trained model and provides an output that corresponds to ablood glucose level of the person. In an embodiment, the blood glucoseML engine is an embodiment of the health parameter determination engine(FIG. 37, 3780) that executes a trained model (also referred to as anestimation algorithm), which may utilize, for example, K nearestneighbors, regression methods, support vector machines, and/or decisiontrees, to make inferences about blood glucose levels in response to theextracted features. In an embodiment, the blood glucose monitoringmodule does not include a lowpass filter an the pulse wave signal is feddirectly to the feature extractor and/or to the blood glucose ML engine.

In an embodiment, because the RF-based sensor system implements coherentcombining that is tuned based on the periodic, or quasi-periodic, natureof a pulse pressure waveform (e.g., an arterial pulse pressure waveformmeasured at the radial artery at the wrist), the pulse wave signal isvery responsive to conditions of the blood that is circulating throughthe body, which translates to less delay in detecting changes in theblood glucose level as compared to techniques that monitor interstitialblood/cells. That is, the blood glucose level of the blood activelycirculating through blood vessels of the person provides a more timelyindication of the blood glucose level than measuring the blood glucoselevel in interstitial blood cells as is the case with some othercontinuous glucose monitoring (CGM) techniques, including techniquesthat involve a needle that is embedded into the skin.

In an embodiment, heart rate can be determined from the generated pulsewave signal by, for example, measuring the time between systolic peaksof the pulse wave signal. Additional physiologic parameters, such asheart rate variability (HRV) can also be determined by the digitalbackend from the generated pulse wave signal. Other health parametersmay be monitored based on changes in reflectivity captured in thegenerated pulse wave signal, such as, for example, blood alcohol level,or other chemicals/drugs that are carried in the blood.

In an embodiment, the blood pressure monitoring module 4630 and theblood glucose monitoring module 4640 may operate simultaneously, e.g.,on the same time segments of the pulse wave signal, to produce bloodpressure and blood glucose values. In other embodiments, the bloodpressure monitoring module and the blood glucose monitoring module mayoperate serially, e.g., on different time segments of the pulse wave,signal, Y, to produce blood pressure and blood glucose values. Forexample, in a serial operation, certain parameters of the radiofrequency scanning may be adjusted to correspond to whether bloodpressure monitoring or blood glucose monitoring is being implementedbecause there may be certain radio frequency scanning parameters thatare better suited for blood pressure monitoring or for blood glucosemonitoring. For example, there may be particular frequency bands thatare better for blood pressure monitoring or blood glucose monitoringand/or there may be different step sizes that are better for bloodpressure monitoring or blood glucose monitoring.

Although in the system 4600 depicted in FIG. 46, the blood pressuremonitoring module 4630 and the blood glucose monitoring module 4640include certain elements, there may be other configurations of the bloodpressure monitoring module and/or the blood glucose monitoring modulethat enable the both blood pressure and blood glucose to be monitoredfrom a pulse wave signal that is generated from a single RF-based sensorsystem.

ML Training for Blood Pressure

As described with reference to FIG. 46, the blood pressure ML engine4636 may be used in an inference process to generate estimates of bloodpressure in response to a pulse wave signal that is generated by theRF-based sensor system. In order to use the blood pressure ML engine inan inference process to generate estimates of blood pressure, a trainedmodel is generated. In an embodiment, a model that can be used in bloodpressure monitoring can be trained with various sets of training data.FIG. 48 illustrates various categories of training data that may be usedalone or in some combination by an ML training engine 4860 to train amodel for use by a blood pressure ML engine, including training datathat may be generated from an RF-based sensor system and training datathat may be generated from other sources. In addition to training themodel, some of the training data may be set aside and used as test datato test/validate the trained model.

In an embodiment, training data may be generated using the RF-basedsensor system described herein. For example, the RF-based sensor systemmay be used to monitor a person while the blood pressure of the personis simultaneously monitored using a clinically accepted blood pressuremonitoring technique. In an embodiment, a person's blood pressure may becontinuously monitored using a catheter technique or the person's bloodpressure may be periodically monitored using a sphygmomanometer.Regardless of the technique used to monitor the blood pressure, theblood pressure measurements are time synchronized to the pulse wavesignal that is generated by the RF-based sensor system to providetraining data that can be used to implement, for example, supervisedlearning. For example, the generated pulse wave signal is periodicallylabeled with corresponding blood pressure measurements to create alabeled training data set. In an embodiment, features are extracted fromthe pulse wave signal and the extracted features are labeled with timesynchronized blood pressure information, e.g., blood pressuremeasurements via a catheter or a sphygmomanometer. The labeled pulsewave signal features are input to the blood pressure ML engine astraining data. Features extracted from the pulse wave signal may, forexample, include timing based features, magnitude based features, and/orarea based features as described above.

In an embodiment, features are extracted from a mathematical model thatis generated from the pulse wave signal and the extracted features arelabeled with time synchronized blood pressure information. The labeledmathematical model features are input to the blood pressure ML engine astraining data. Features extracted from the mathematical model mayinclude Fourier coefficients of a trigonometric polynomial.

In an embodiment, training data may be generated from a preestablisheddata set such as the publicly available MIMIC III data set(www.mimic.physionet.org), which includes a relational databasecontaining tables of data relating to patients that were monitored in ahospital. Of particular note, the MIMIC III database includes a waveformdatabase (MIMIC III Waveform Database Matched Subset), which includesdigitized signals such as ECG, arterial blood pressure (ABP),respiration, and PPG, as well as periodic measurements such as heartrate, oxygen saturation, and systolic blood pressure, mean bloodpressure, and diastolic blood pressure. The generation of training datausing the MIMIC III data set is described below.

Other information that may be associated with the labeled features(e.g., the labeled features from the RF-based sensory system and/or fromthe reestablished data set) and used as training data may includedynamic time synchronized parameters such as heart rate, temperature,and blood glucose level, and/or static parameters such as informationabout the monitored person, e.g., age, gender, height, weight, andmedical history.

In an embodiment, training data generated from different sources is usedto train the model. For example, training data generated from theRF-based sensor system is combined with training data generated from apreestablished database such as from the MIMIC III database. In anembodiment, the training data from different sources may be weighteddifferently. For example, training data specific to the RF-based sensorsystem, but not captured in the MIMIC III database, may be weighted moreheavily than training data from the MIMIC III database.

FIG. 49A illustrates a process for generating training data from acombination of different sources and for using the training data totrain a model. As mentioned above, training data may be generated usingthe RF-based sensor system and a control element, and training data maybe generated from a preestablished database such as the publiclyavailable MIMIC III database. With reference to FIG. 49A, in anembodiment, an RF-based sensor system 4910 (e.g., including an RFfront-end 4948 and a pulse wave signal processor 4978) is used tomonitor a control element 4964 (e.g., a person connected to a clinicallyaccepted blood pressure monitor) by transmitting radio waves 4916 belowthe skin surface at the location of the radial artery in the wrist. TheRF-based sensor system generates electrical signals in response toreceived RF energy and the pulse wave signal processor coherentlycombines the signals to generate a pulse wave signal as described above.The feature extractor 4984 extracts features (e.g., feature(t)) from thepulse wave signal (or from a mathematical model of the pulse wavesignal) and the features are provided to a labeling engine 4990. Forexample, extracted features may include time based features, magnitudebased features, and/or area based features as described above. Controldata, such as blood pressure as a function of time (e.g., BP(t) mmHg),is also provided to the labeling engine. The extracted features and thecontrol data are combined by the labeling engine in a time-synchronizedmanner to create a labeled set of training data (e.g., a labeled dataset with blood pressure as the ground truth and the extracted feature asthe variable, feature: BP) that can be provided to the ML trainingengine and used to train a model using, for example, supervisedlearning.

In addition to, or instead of, the sensor-based training data, trainingdata may be generated from a known pulse wave-to-blood pressuredatabase, such as the MIMIC III database 4986. As illustrated in FIG.49A, pulse wave information (PW_(n)) from the database may be providedto a feature extractor 4988, which extracts a feature, or features, fromthe pulse wave information. For example, extracted features may includetime based features, magnitude based features, and/or area basedfeatures as described above. Extracted features as a function of time(e.g., feature(PW_(n)(t)) are provided to the labeling engine 4990 alongwith control data, e.g., in the form of blood pressure as a function oftime for the corresponding pulse wave (BP(PW_(n)(t)). The extractedfeatures and the control data are combined by the labeling engine in atime-synchronous manner to create a labeled set of training data (e.g.,a labeled data set with blood pressure as the ground truth and theextracted feature as the variable, feature: BP) that can be provided tothe ML training engine 4960 to train a model using, for example,supervised training.

The training data can be used by the ML training engine 4960 to train amodel that relates extracted features to blood pressure levels. In anembodiment, both sets of training data are used to train the model, witha weighting between the two sets adapted to, for example, account forspecific characteristics of the RF-based sensor system. In anembodiment, training the module may utilize supervised learningtechniques that involve, for example, K nearest neighbors, regressionmethods, support vector machines, and/or decision trees. In anembodiment, algorithm selection and/or model building involvessupervised learning to recognize patterns in the training data. In anembodiment, the algorithm selection process may involve utilizingregularized regression algorithms (e.g., Lasso Regression, RidgeRegression, Elastic-Net), decision tree algorithms, and/or treeensembles (random forests, boosted trees).

Although FIG. 49A depicts a single labeling engine 4990, the labelingprocess may be implemented by different labeling engines. For example,the two processes of generating training data may be implemented by twodifferent labeling engines separately from each other (e.g., physicallyand/or temporally separate), with the resulting training data providedto the blood pressure ML engine.

A similar approach may be used with regard to generating training dataand training a model for use blood glucose monitoring. FIG. 49Billustrates a process for generating training data and for using thetraining data to train a model for use in blood glucose monitoring. Thetraining data is generated using the RF-based sensor system 4910 and acontrol element 4965. With reference to FIG. 49B, in an embodiment, anRF-based sensor system 4910 (e.g., including the RF front-end 4948 andthe pulse wave signal processor 4978) is used to monitor a controlelement 4965 (e.g., a person connected to a clinically accepted bloodglucose monitor) by transmitting radio waves 4916 below the skin surfaceat the location of a blood vessel in the person, e.g., an artery or veinaround the wrist. The RF-based sensor system generates electricalsignals in response to received RF energy and the pulse wave signalprocessor coherently combines the signals to generate a pulse wavesignal as described above. A lowpass filter 4985 filters the pulse wavesignal to generate a filtered signal. For example, the pulse wave signalmay be filtered with a lowpass filter that is configured to passfrequencies of less than about 0.5 Hz (e.g., to within ±10%). In anembodiment, filtering the pulse wave signal to pass frequencies lessthan about 0.5 Hz helps to isolate the data that corresponds to changesin reflectivity of the blood in the vessel due to changes in the bloodchemistry from the data that corresponds to changes in reflectivity ofthe blood in the vessel due to changes in the volume of blood in thevessel.

The filtered signal is provided to a labeling engine 4991. Elements ofthe filtered signal may include, for example, time based features,amplitude based features, and/or phase based features. Control data,such as blood glucose levels as a function of time (e.g., glucose levelZ(t) mg/dL), is also provided to the labeling engine. The filteredsignal and the control data are combined by the labeling engine in atime-synchronized manner to create a labeled set of training data (e.g.,a labeled data set with blood glucose level as the ground truth and afeature of the filtered signal as the variable, feature: blood glucoselevel) that can be provided to the ML training engine and used to traina model using, for example, supervised learning.

The training data can be used by the ML training engine 4961 to train amodel that relates the filtered signal to blood glucose levels. In anembodiment, training the module may utilize supervised learningtechniques that involve, for example, K nearest neighbors, regressionmethods, support vector machines, and/or decision trees. In anembodiment, algorithm selection and/or model building involvessupervised learning to recognize patterns in the training data. In anembodiment, the algorithm selection process may involve utilizingregularized regression algorithms (e.g., Lasso Regression, RidgeRegression, Elastic-Net), decision tree algorithms, and/or treeensembles (random forests, boosted trees).

ML Inference

As described above with reference to FIG. 46, machine learningtechniques may be used to generate a value that is indicative of ahealth parameter such as blood pressure and/or blood glucose level. FIG.50A depicts an example of a health parameter monitoring system 5010-1that utilizes machine learning techniques to generate values that areindicative of a health parameter, or health parameters, such as bloodpressure, blood glucose level, heart rate, heart rate variability (HRV).The health monitoring system includes an RF front-end 5048, a pulse wavesignal processor 5078, a feature extractor 5084, and a health parameterdetermination engine 5080. In an embodiment, the RF front-end, the pulsewave signal processor, and the feature extractor are configured tofunction as described above to generate electrical signals in responseto reflected radio waves, to generate a pulse wave signal in response tothe electrical signals, and to extract features from the pulse wavesignal (or from a mathematical model corresponding to the pulse wavesignal), respectively. The health parameter determination engine isconfigured to implement an inference operation to generate values thatare indicative of a health parameter in response to the extractedfeatures using a trained model. In an embodiment, a value that isindicative of a health parameter (e.g., blood pressure, blood glucoselevel, heart rate, HRV) is output in response to extracted features. Forexample, a trained model executed by the health parameter determinationengine may utilize, for example, K nearest neighbors, regressionmethods, support vector machines, and/or decision trees, to make aninference in response to extracted features. Although not shown, thehealth monitoring system may implement filtering of the pulse wavesignal (or filtering of a mathematical model corresponding to the pulsewave signal) as described above with reference to FIG. 46.

As mentioned above, the elements of the health monitoring system 5010-1shown in FIG. 50A can be distributed amongst various computing systems.FIG. 50B depicts an example of a health parameter monitoring system5010-2 as shown in FIG. 50A in which the RF front-end 5048, the pulsewave signal processor 5078, and the feature extractor 5084 areintegrated into a first component 5002 (e.g., a wearable such as a wriststrap), and the health parameter determination engine 5080 is integratedinto a second component 5004, such as smartphone or smartwatch (or othercomputing system). In the example shown in FIG. 50B, an interface 5006of the first component transmits (e.g., wirelessly via Bluetooth)extracted features to an interface 5008 of the second component. Thehealth parameter determination engine of the second component uses theextracted features to make inferences about a health parameter, such asblood pressure and/or blood glucose level. In an embodiment, the featureextractor may provide a code or codes that correspond to the extractedfeatures as a way to reduce the volume of data that is transmitted tothe second component. In the embodiment of FIG. 50B, the first componentcan be implemented as a lightweight wearable such as a wrist strap withrelatively small and energy efficient electronic hardware, including asmall power source, as compared to the hardware that implements thehealth parameter determination engine. FIG. 50C depicts another exampleof a health parameter monitoring system 5010-3 as shown in FIG. 50A inwhich the RF front-end 5048 and the pulse wave signal processor 5078 areintegrated into a first component 5012 (e.g., a wearable such as a wriststrap), and the feature extractor 5084 and the health parameterdetermination engine 5080 are integrated into a second component 5014,such as smartphone or smartwatch (or other computing system). In theexample shown in FIG. 50C, an interface 5016 of the first componenttransmits (e.g., wirelessly) the pulse wave signal (or a mathematicalmodel of the pulse wave signal or a code representing the mathematicalmodel) to an interface 5018 of the second component. The featureextractor extracts features from the pulse wave signal (or from thecorresponding mathematical model) and the health parameter determinationengine uses the extracted features to make inferences about a healthparameter, such as blood pressure and/or blood glucose level. In theembodiment of FIG. 50C, the first component can be implemented as alightweight wearable, such as wrist strap, with even smaller and moreenergy efficient electronic hardware as compared to the hardware thatimplements the feature extractor and the health parameter determinationengine. In the embodiments of FIGS. 50B and 50C there may be tradeoffsbetween the amount of processing that is done at the first component andthe cost (e.g., in terms or processing requirements and power) totransmit data between the first component and the second component. Ifthe pulse wave signal (or a mathematical model of the pulse wave signal)is filtered before feature extraction, the filter may be implemented onthe first component or on the second component depending on, forexample, processing efficiency and power utilization.

Spectral Agility

The RF-based sensor system disclosed herein, which uses atwo-dimensional array of RX antennas and a range of radio frequencies,exhibits a high level of spectral agility relative to other known healthmonitoring sensors, including other RF-based and optical-based healthmonitoring sensors. As described herein, the RF-based sensor systemusing a two-dimensional array of RX antennas and a range of radiofrequencies (e.g., a range of stepped frequencies) is able to produce apulse wave signal that corresponds well to an actual arterial pulsepressure waveform of a person. In view of the spectral agility of thedisclosed RF-based sensor system, it has been realized that parametersof the radio frequency scanning may be changed in response to thegenerated pulse wave signal, for example, on a time scale that enablesspectral adjustments to be made within a single pulse wave or betweenpulse waves of the pulse wave signal. Spectral adjustments made inresponse to the generated pulse wave signal may include an adjustment tothe frequency range over which the radio frequency scanning occurs, anadjustment to the frequency step size in stepped frequency scanning,and/or an adjustment to the time period of each step in the steppedfrequency scanning. Such spectral adjustments may be made to providevarious benefits such as improvements in signal quality, improvements inSNR, reductions in interference, optimization for monitoring of aparticular health parameter, power conservation, and/or achieving adesired balance between multiple different factors.

Various examples of changing a parameter of the radio frequency scanningare described with reference to FIGS. 51-56. FIG. 51 illustrates a pulsewave signal 5102, which is generated by the RF-based sensor system,relative to changes in a parameter of the radio frequency scanning thatare made in response to the generated pulse wave signal. As illustratedin the example of FIG. 51, the step size used in stepped frequencyscanning is changed at each new pulse wave of the pulse wave signal. Forexample, when the RF-based sensor system determines from the pulse wavesignal that a new pulse wave is beginning, the step size of the steppedfrequency scanning is changed. In the example of FIG. 51, the step size,Δf, is changed at each new pulse wave, e.g., Δf₁ to Δf₂, Δf₂ to Δf₃, Δf₃to Δf₂, Δf₂ to Δf₄, and Δf₄ to Δf₂, where each of Δf₁, Δf₂, Δf₃, and Δf₄represents a different frequency step size that is used to step throughthe range of stepped frequencies during the corresponding time period.Although in the example of FIG. 51, the step size, Δf, is changed ateach new pulse wave of the pulse wave signal, in other examples, thestep size may not be changed at each new pulse wave. Additionally,although a particular example of step size changes is illustrated, othersteps size changes are possible.

In an embodiment, radio frequency scanning is implemented at a rate ofapproximately 150 scans/second, with each scan including 64 distinctfrequency steps. In such an embodiment, the beginning of a new pulsewave may be identified by calculating and monitoring the change in slopeof the generated pulse wave signal. For example, a change in slope thatis indicative of a new pulse wave may be gleaned from the pulse wavesignal by calculating the slope over a few scans, e.g., overapproximately 5-10 scans, which translates to 5/150-10/150 of a second(or 0.033-0.067 of a second, or 33 milliseconds-67 milliseconds). When achange in slope that is indicative of a new pulse wave is identified, achange in the step size can be implemented at a rapid pace relative tothe total time of a single pulse wave, such that the change in step sizeappears to happen in real-time (e.g., instantaneously) relative to asingle pulse wave. For example, the step size can be changed from stepsize, Δf₁, to step size, Δf₂, in less than 100 milliseconds in responseto detecting a new pulse wave from the generated pulse wave signal.

In an embodiment, the digital baseband system includes a DSP thatoperates at a clock speed in the range of, for example, 300-400 MHz anda parameter change to the radio frequency scanning can be implementedin, for example, 100-200 clock cycles. Implementing a parameter changein 100-200 clock cycles at 300-400 MHz will appear to be implemented inreal-time (e.g., instantaneously) relative to a single pulse wave, whichis approximately 1 second in duration.

In the example of FIG. 51, the step size is changed at each new pulsewave of the pulse wave signal. In other embodiments, a parameter of theradio frequency scanning may be changed in response to the pulse wavesignal at a different interval. FIG. 52 illustrates a pulse wave signal5202, which is generated by the RF-based sensor system, relative tochanges in the step size that are made upon detection of every otherpulse wave in the pulse wave signal. In the example of FIG. 52, thechanges in step size oscillate back and forth between the step size,Δf₁, and the step size, Δf₂, in response to detection of a new pulse.Other algorithms for changing a parameter of the stepped frequencyscanning in response to the pulse wave signal are possible.

In the examples of FIGS. 51 and 52, a parameter of the radio frequencyscanning (e.g., the step size, Δf, in a stepped frequency scanningimplementation) is changed at the beginning of a pulse wave. In otherembodiments, a parameter of the radio frequency scanning may be changedin response to a different feature of the generated pulse wave signal.FIG. 53 illustrates a pulse wave signal 5302, which is generated by theRF-based sensor system, relative to a change in the step size that ismade in response to detecting the systolic peak of a pulse wave signal.As illustrated in FIG. 53, the step size is changed from step size, Δf₁,to step size, Δf₂, in response to detecting the systolic peak of aparticular pulse wave of the pulse wave signal. Although in the exampleof FIG. 53, the step size is changed in response to detecting thesystolic peak in a pulse wave signal, a parameter of the radio frequencyscanning may be changed in response to another feature of the pulse wavesignal including, for example, a calculated slope greater than a slopethreshold, a calculated slope less than a slope threshold, a derivativeof the slope, a predetermined time period after detection of a featureof the pulse wave signal, detection of a systolic peak, detection of adicrotic notch, detection of a diastolic peak. In another embodiment, aparameter of radio frequency scanning may be changed based on theexpiration of a predetermined time interval.

In the examples described above, the step size is the parameter of theradio frequency scanning that is changed in response to the generatedpulse wave signal. FIG. 54 illustrates a pulse wave signal 5402, whichis generated by the RF-based sensor system, relative to a change in thescanning range that is made in response to the generated pulse wavesignal. As illustrated in FIG. 54, stepped frequency scanning isinitially done over a frequency range of 2-6 GHz, but upon detection ofa third new pulse wave of the pulse wave signal, the frequency range ofthe stepped frequency scanning is changed from 2-6 GHz to a frequencyrange of 122-126 GHz. After that change, and upon the detection of athird new pulse wave signal, the frequency range of the steppedfrequency scanning is changed again, this time from the frequency rangeof 122-126 GHz back to the frequency range of 2-6 GHz. In the example ofFIG. 54, the step size, Δf₁, stays the same as the frequency rangechanges. Although FIG. 54 illustrates an example of an algorithm forchanging the frequency range of the stepped frequency scanning, otheralgorithms for changing a parameter, or parameters, of the steppedfrequency scanning in response to the generated pulse wave signal arealso possible.

In the examples described above, a parameter of the radio frequencyscanning is changed only one time during the course of a single pulsewave of the pulse wave signal, e.g., on an “inter-wave” basis. In otherembodiments, a parameter of the radio frequency scanning is changedmultiple times within a single pulse wave, e.g., on an “intra-wave”basis, in response to the pulse wave signal. FIG. 55 illustrates asingle pulse wave 5502 of a pulse wave signal generated by the RF-basedsensor system in which the step size of stepped frequency scanning ischanged intra-wave in response to detection of features of the pulsewave signal. In the example depicted in FIG. 55, the step size ischanged from step size, Δf₁, to step size, Δf₂, in response to detectinga rapid increase in the slope of the pulse wave signal. For example, thechange in step size from step size, Δf₁, to step size, Δf₂, is triggeredwhen a slope calculated between scans (or over a set of scans) isdetermined to exceed a slope threshold. In the example of FIG. 55, thechange in slope is determined to exceed a first slope threshold when thepulse wave signal has risen about half way to the systolic peak.Further, in the example of FIG. 55 the step size is changed again (e.g.,back to step size, Δf₁) when the slope of the pulse wave signal dropsbelow a second slope threshold, which is detected after a dicrotic notchhas been detected. Thus, in the example of FIG. 55, the step size isincreased, e.g., step size, Δf₁, is greater than step size, Δf₂, forscans that are conducted around the systolic peak, the dicrotic notch,and the diastolic peak, as indicated by the hatched section between thetwo vertical dashed lines in FIG. 55. In an embodiment, it may bedesirable to have more scans completed (e.g., due to a larger step sizeover the same frequency range) during sections of the pulse wave signalthat have distinctive features as a trade-off between resolution andprocessing resource consumption. For example, when signals are digitallyprocessed on a per scan basis as described above, more scans per secondacross the same scanning frequency range (e.g., 2-6 GHz) may translateto higher pulse wave signal resolution but also to higher processingload and higher power consumption, while fewer scans per second acrossthe same scanning frequency range (e.g., because of a smaller stepsize), may translate to lower pulse wave signal resolution but also tolower processing load and lower power consumption.

FIG. 56 depicts another example of intra-wave changes to a parameter ofthe radio frequency scanning in which the step size is changed multipletimes within a single pulse wave 5602 of the generated pulse wavesignal. Similar to the example of FIG. 56, the step size is changed fromstep size, Δf₁, to step size, Δf₂, before the systolic peak and thenfrom step size, Δf₂, back to step size, Δf₁, after the diastolic peak.Additionally, in the example of FIG. 56, the step size is changed fromstep size, Δf₂, back to step size, Δf₁, shortly after the systolic peakis detected and then from step size, Δf₁, to step size, Δf₂, just as thedicrotic notch is expected to appear. Such an algorithm for changing thestep size in response to the generated pulse wave signal may furtheroptimize trade-offs between signal resolution and resource consumption.

Although a few examples of changing parameters of the stepped frequencyscanning in response to the generated pulse wave signal are describedwith reference to FIGS. 51-56, a parameter, or parameters, of thestepped frequency scanning may be changed in different ways in responseto the pulse wave signal. For example, stepped frequency parameters suchas the steps size, the frequency range, and/or step time can be changedin response to the pulse wave signal. Additionally, a parameter, orparameters, of the stepped frequency scanning could be changed inresponse to a mathematical model of the pulse width signal.

Although some of the examples are described herein with reference tomonitoring an artery such as the radial artery near the wrist, thetechniques described herein may be applicable to other blood vessels,includes other veins, arteries, and/or capillaries.

Although the operations of the method(s) herein are shown and describedin a particular order, the order of the operations of each method may bealtered so that certain operations may be performed in an inverse orderor so that certain operations may be performed, at least in part,concurrently with other operations. In another embodiment, instructionsor sub-operations of distinct operations may be implemented in anintermittent and/or alternating manner.

It should also be noted that at least some of the operations for themethods described herein may be implemented using software instructionsstored on a computer useable storage medium for execution by a computer.As an example, an embodiment of a computer program product includes acomputer useable storage medium to store a computer readable program.

The computer-useable or computer-readable storage medium can be anelectronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, orsemiconductor system (or apparatus or device). Examples ofnon-transitory computer-useable and computer-readable storage mediainclude a semiconductor or solid state memory, magnetic tape, aremovable computer diskette, a random access memory (RAM), a read-onlymemory (ROM), a rigid magnetic disk, and an optical disk. Currentexamples of optical disks include a compact disk with read only memory(CD-ROM), a compact disk with read/write (CD-R/W), and a digital videodisk (DVD).

Alternatively, embodiments of the invention may be implemented entirelyin hardware or in an implementation containing both hardware andsoftware elements. In embodiments which use software, the software mayinclude but is not limited to firmware, resident software, microcode,etc.

Although specific embodiments of the invention have been described andillustrated, the invention is not to be limited to the specific forms orarrangements of parts so described and illustrated. The scope of theinvention is to be defined by the claims appended hereto and theirequivalents.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for generating training data for use inmonitoring a health parameter of a person, the method comprising:receiving a pulse wave signal that is generated from radio frequencyscanning data that corresponds to radio waves that have reflected frombelow the skin surface of a person, wherein the radio frequency scanningdata is collected through a two-dimensional array of receive antennasover a range of radio frequencies; extracting features from at least oneof the pulse wave signal and a mathematical model generated in responseto the pulse wave signal; and labeling the extracted features with acorresponding blood pressure to generate training data.
 2. The methodfurther comprising training a model using the training data to produce atrained model, wherein the trained model correlates the extractedfeatures to values that are indicative of a blood pressure of a person.3. The method of claim 1, wherein the radio frequency scanning data isgenerated by transmitting radio waves below the skin surface of theperson and receiving radio waves on the two-dimensional array of receiveantennas, the received radio waves including a reflected portion of thetransmitted radio waves that is reflected from a blood vessel of theperson.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein radio waves are transmittedfrom transmit antennas that have at least two different polarizationorientations and wherein radio waves are received on antennas of thetwo-dimensional array of receive antennas that have polarizationorientations that correspond to the transmit antennas.
 5. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the radio frequency scanning data is collected acrossthe range of radio frequencies at 50-300 scans per second.
 6. The methodof claim 1, wherein the pulse wave signal is generated by coherentlycombining the radio frequency scanning data over the range offrequencies for each receive antenna in the two-dimensional array ofreceive antennas.
 7. The method of claim 1, further comprising:extracting features from a digital dataset of blood pressure waveformsand blood pressure data; labeling the extracted features with acorresponding blood pressure to generate supplemental training data; andtraining a model using the training data and the supplemental trainingdata to produce a trained model.
 8. The method of claim 7, furthercomprising weighting the training data generated from the digital dataset different from the training data generated from the steppedfrequency scanning.
 9. A method for generating training data for use inmonitoring a health parameter of a person, the method comprising:receiving a pulse wave signal that is generated from stepped frequencyscanning data that corresponds to radio waves that have reflected frombelow the skin surface of a person, wherein the stepped frequencyscanning data is collected through a two-dimensional array of receiveantennas over a range of stepped frequencies; extracting features fromat least one of the pulse wave signal and a mathematical model generatedin response to the pulse wave signal; and labeling the extractedfeatures with a corresponding blood pressure to generate training data.10. A method for generating training data for use in monitoring a healthparameter of a person, the method comprising: transmitting radio wavesbelow the skin surface of a person and across a range of radiofrequencies; receiving radio waves on a two-dimensional array of receiveantennas, the received radio waves including a reflected portion of thetransmitted radio waves across the range of radio frequencies;generating digital data that corresponds to the received radio waves;coherently combining the digital data across the receive antennas of thetwo-dimensional array of receive antennas and across the range of radiofrequencies to produce a pulse wave signal; extracting features from atleast one of the pulse wave signal and a mathematical model generated inresponse to the pulse wave signal; and labeling the extracted featureswith a value corresponding to a health parameter to generate trainingdata.
 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising training a modelusing the training data to produce a trained model, wherein the trainedmodel correlates the extracted features to values that are indicative ofthe health parameter of a person.
 12. The method of claim 10, whereinthe digital data includes amplitude data and phase data and whereincoherently combining the digital data comprises adjusting weightscorresponding to at least one of the amplitude data and the phase dataon a per-antenna and on a per-frequency basis.
 13. The method of claim10, wherein radio waves are transmitted from transmit antennas that haveat least two different polarization orientations and wherein radio wavesare received on antennas of the two-dimensional array of receiveantennas that have polarization orientations that correspond to thetransmit antennas.
 14. The method of claim 10, wherein the pulse wavesignal is an arterial pulse wave signal.
 15. The method of claim 14,wherein the extracted feature is a function of a dicrotic notch of thepulse wave signal.
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein the extractedfeature is a function of diastolic peak of the pulse wave signal. 17.The method of claim 10, wherein the health parameter is blood pressure.18. The method of claim 10, wherein the health parameter is bloodglucose level.
 19. The method of claim 10, further comprising:extracting features from a digital dataset of blood pressure waveformsand blood pressure data; labeling the extracted features with acorresponding blood pressure to generate supplemental training data; andtraining a model using the training data and the supplemental trainingdata to produce a trained model.
 20. The method of claim 19, furthercomprising weighting the training data generated from the digital dataset different from the training data generated from the radio frequencyscanning.